Büyük İskender ve Helenistik Dönem
CKM 2017-20 / Aziz Yardımlı

 

 
Büyük İskender

 

🕑 HELENİSTİK DÖNEM İÖ i323-31

HELENİSTİK DÖNEM İÖ 323-31

 

 



  Büyüklük ve Özgürlük

Büyüklüğün işi Tarih yapmaktır. Tarih Tinin oluş süreci olduğuna göre, Büyüklüğün işi homo sapiensi büyütmektir. Dünya-Tarihsel kahramanların büyüklüğü İstençlerinden, Özgürlüklerinden doğar. Despotun işi Tarihi durdurmak, istenci engellemek, özgürlükten korkmaktır. Despotun tarihteki rolü küçüklüğü temsil etmektir. Büyük İskender tarihsel olarak uyuşmuş despotik Doğu dünyasını özgürlük ile tanıştırdı. Despotizm yalnızlığı ve yalıtılmışlığı sever, etkileşimden ve değişimden uzak durur. Ama yenilik eskiyi rahat bırakmaz, onu bulur ve yenileştirmeye başlar. Asya’ın gerçek Tarihi İskender’in İstenci ile başlar, çünkü gelişim için İstenç gereklidir, ve İstenç ancak büyük olabilir. Tarih özgürlük bilincini evrensel ölçekte kazanma sürecidir.

Pozitivist görelilik bakış açısı için tüm kültürler eşit değerdedir ve özgürlük ve kölelik arasında, uygarlık ve barbarlık, büyüklük ve küçüklük arasında herhangi bir özsel ayrım yoktur, iyi ve kötü, güzel ve çirkin görelidir. Tarih tüm çalışıp çabalaması ile sonunda insanı estetik-sonrasına, etik-sonrasına ve gerçeklik-sonrasına getirip bırakır. Tarih anlamsız, süreçsiz, gelişimsiz bir yinelemedir ve insan için olsa olsa ereksiz bir türlülük sunar. Klasik saçmadır, çünkü bir idea ve ideal yoktur.



Pozitivizm için tarihe yaklaşmada kavramlar gereksiz ve nesnellik olanaksızdır, ve bu iş için birinin kendi keyfi bakış açısı bütünüyle yeterlidir. Tarih bir yorum sorunudur, istencin bir işi değil, çünkü istenç tarihi ereksel yapar.

 

Bu bakış açısı aptalca ve can sıkıcıdır. İnsanı saçmalaştırır, onu istençsizleştirir ve karşısında çaresiz kaldığı bir yazgının eline bırakır.

 

Usun bakış açısından Tarih insanlığın oluş süreci olarak en anlamlı ve önemli eylemidir. Saltık erek ile, istencin ereği olarak gönenç ile göreli olarak ölçüldüğünde, tüm kültürler yalnızca geçici ve yitici olmada eşit değerdedir ve uygar etiğin oluş sürecinde eşitsiz gelişim basamaklarında dururlar. Kültür tarihseldir, türlülüktür. Uygarlık ya da özgürlük kendini realite yapmanın aracı olarak Tarihi kullanır.

 

Tarih istencin eylemi olan bir etik gelişim süreci olarak alındığında erekseldir ve o zaman tarihsel öznelerin eylemleri kendinde ussal bir sürecin momentleri olurlar. O zaman Tarihte birbiri ile göreli olarak gelişmiş, ya da az gelişmiş, çok az gelişmiş, çok çok az gelişmiş vb. kültürler vardır. Ve bu görelilikler satık bir erek, evrensel özgürlük ereği karşısında böyledir. Dinginliksiz gelişim ereğin dinginliğini imler.

 

Geri kültür ileri kültürü anlayacak kategorilerden yoksundur, ona anlam veremez, ve anlamadığı onun için yoktur. İstencin pıhtılaşması ile belirlenen tutucu despotik kültür tinin değişim ve gelişimine izin vermez ve Klasiğe erişecek kategorileri üretemez. İdea ve İdeal ile bir işi ve ilgisi yoktur çünkü hiçbir İdeası yoktur. Güzellik, özgürlük ve gerçeklik tümü de tutucu gelenek kütüründe henüz terk edemedikleri güdüklükten utanırlar. Bu gerilik durumlarında yaşam kendini açındırmaz, yalnızca yineler. Estetik, etik ve entellektüel kategoriler gelişmek için kendi özgür kültürlerini yaratır.

 

Estetik gelişim Güzele duyarlığın gelişimidir. Etik gelişim yaşam ereği olarak İyi yaşamın bilincinin gelişimidir. Entellektüel gelişim özgür düşünmenin ve bilmenin gelişimidir.

PERSİA — MAKEDONYA — ROMA



Nike..
 
   

Helenistik dönem (İÖ 323-30) İskender’in ölümü (İÖ 323) ile başladığı ve Actium savaşı (İÖ 30) ile sonlandığı kabul edilen bir tanımlamadır.

 

Helenistik dönemin başlıca karakteristiği Helenik kültürün İskender’in fetihleri (İÖ 334-323) sonucunda ortadan kaldırılan Pers imparatorluğunun engin topraklarına yayılması ve egemenliğin bütünüyle Helenistik bir nitelik taşımasıdır. İÖ 30 yılında yer alan Actium savaşından sonra aynı alanda egemen güç bundan böyle Roma’dır.

 

Fethettiği büyük uygarlıkların kültüründen etkilenen İskender’in kendisi Helen ve Pers kültürlerinin bir bireşimini sağlamayı istedi. Bu etkileşim bir süredir yer alıyordu ve Yunanlılar Mezpotamya ve Mısır’ı olduğu gibi Persia’yı da yakından tanıyordu. Sonuçta bireşim yerine değişim yer aldı ve Helenistik tin Roma için Klasik bir alan hazırladı.

HELENİSTİK BATI-ASYA




Helenistik Krallıklar, İÖ 3'üncü yüzyıl
 
   

Helenistik dönemin Pers İmparatorluğunun yıkılması ile başladığının kabul edlimesine karşın, dönem politik olmaktan çok kültürel karakteri ile öne çıkar. Pers İmparatorluğunu ortadan kaldıran ve bütün bir Batı ve Orta Asya’ya egemen olmaya başlayan yeni güç askeri değil, entellektüeldir. Makedon ordusunun gücü hiçbir zaman 50.000 askerden daha yüksek değildi. İstençsiz bir Pers dünyası karşısında, İskender’in gücü fiziksel değil, tinsel idi. İskender’in gücü biricik gerçek güç olan istençten oluşuyordu.

 

Helenik tinin Batı- ve Orta-Asya’ya doğru yayılması ilkin despotizmin özgürlük tini ile karşılaşması olarak görünür. Sonuç değişime ve yeniliğe izin vermeyen pıhtılaşmış despotik kültürlerin çözülmeye başlaması, Asya’nın yalnızca kendini yineleyen pırıltısız topraklarında Usun ve Özgürlüğün ışığının doğmaya başlamasıdır. Helenistik dönem ile yeni Helenik tin yalıtılmış kent-devleti ölçeğinden çıkarak ilk kez evrensel tarihe katılmaya, edimsel olarak Dünya Tarihini belirlemeye, etik-öncesi ve etik-dışı kültürleri özgürlük ile tanıştırmaya başlar.

DÜNYA TARİHİNDE HELENİK TİN



 
   

Helenik kültürün insan tinini ulaştırdığı estetik, etik ve entellektüel yükseklik ile karşıtlık içinde, Asya’da tarih olmayan tarihler, biteviye kendilerini yineleyen kültürler zamanı durdurur ve yalnızca usandırıcı olanı, yalnızca kadim olanı üretirler. ‘Klasik’ despotik tine yabancıdır, ve geciken gelecekleri başkalarının tarihine öykünmekten oluşacaktır. Despotik tin ortadan kalkmaya direnen sağlam yapılar kurar, kendini yalıtır, ve tüm tarihi eski olana sarılmaktan ve onu pekiştirmekten oluşur (Çin, Hindistan, Persia). Tarihsel sağlamlık, paradoksal olarak, tarihsel önemsizliğe götürür. Batı Asya’da da Mezopotamya ve Mısır kültürlerinin özeti olan Persler aynı despotik, tutucu ve gelişime kapalı kültürleri ile tarihsel rollerini tamamladılar ve özgür Helenik tin tarafından ortadan kaldırıldılar. Pers tarihi estetik, etik ve entellektüel oluş sürecine dirençten oluşur. Despotik karakter özgürlüğü, istenci, tarihi yadsımasında kendini küçük kalmaya yazgılar.

 


Büyük İskender Fenike kenti Tyre'nin kuşatmasına önderlik ederken, İÖ 332, Temmuz.
 
   

Helenistik Dönem tekil Yunan kent-devletlerinin sonunu ve bundan böyle tarihsel gelişimin özeğinin Batı ve Orta Asya olduğunu anlatır. Henüz tarih-öncesini yaşayan Kuzey Avrupa uygarlığa direnen bir Germanik barbarlar alanıdır. Kuzey Afrika, Güney Avrupa ve Batı Asya’yı kucaklayan bütün bir Akdeniz havzası Helenik tinin yeni bir yapılanması olan Roma’nın kültür alanıdır. Roma önce Cumhuriyet ve arkasından İmparatorluk olarak sürerken, onun yanında tarih sahnesine ilkin Arap İmparatorlukları ve daha sonra Selçuklu ve Osmanlı İmparatorlukları çıkacaktır. Germanik tin tarih sahnesine Roma İmparatorluğunun Batı bölgesini bir yıkıntıya çevirerek girecek, ama Reformasyondan sonra başka herkes arkaik değerlerin nasıl korunacağı problemini çözmekle uğraşırken modern dönemi başlatacak ve dünyanın yeni egemeni olacaktır.

 
   
İskender’in doğumu üzerine babası II. Filip Aristoteles’e bir mektupta şunları yazdı: “Bil ki bana bir oğul doğdu. Ama tanrılara bana onu verdikleri için olmaktan çok onu senin zamanında verdikleri için minnettarım. Çünkü senin yetiştirme tarzının ve bilgeliğinin onu gelecekteki krallığına değer bir insan yapacağını umuyorum.” Aristoteles öğrencisinden dünya-tarihsel bir karakter yarattı.
 
   

İskender’in eylemleri ve erdemleri, düşünceleri ve dostlukları Aristoteles’ten aldığı eğitimin değerinin ve başarısının tanıklarıdır. Aynı zamanda kuramsal felsefenin kılgısal yararsızlığı konusundaki tüm aptalca konuşmalara son yanıtı oluştururlar. Tarihte başka hiçbir insan İskender kadar etkili olmadı. Hiçbir insan dünya kültürünün gelişiminde onun kadar belirleyici olmadı. İskender’in ölümünden sonra Helenistik dönemde ardılları tarafından kurulan imparatorluklar askeri ya da politik olmaktan çok kültürel imparatorluklar idi.

 

📹📹📹 Alexander the Great — BIO & FACTS (VİDEO)

Alexander the Great — BIO & FACTS

📹 The Campaigns of Alexander the Great (VİDEO)

📹 The Campaigns of Alexander the Great (LINK)

 



📹 Alexander the Great - King Of The Ancient Greek Kingdom Macedonia / Mini Bio BIO (VİDEO)

📹 Alexander the Great — King Of The Ancient Greek Kingdom Macedonia / Mini Bio BIO (LINK)

Conqueror and king of Macedonia, Alexander the Great was born in 356 B.C., in Pella, Macedonia. He became the king of Persia, Babylon and Asia, and created Macedonian colonies in Iran. Alexander died of malaria in Babylon, Persia, in 323 B.C.

 



📹 Alexander the Great Biography (VİDEO)

📹 Alexander the Great Biography (LINK)

Alexander the Great built one of the largest civilizations in Ancient History.

 



📹 Top 10 Alexander The Great Facts (VİDEO)

📹 Top 10 Alexander The Great Facts (LINK)

He is one of history's most influential rulers and conquered Asia before his 30th birthday.

 



📹 Epic Moments in History - The 9 Lives of Alexander the Great (VİDEO)

📹 Epic Moments in History — The 9 Lives of Alexander the Great (LINK)

Alexander the Great is one of the most famous historical figures of all time. Yet many are unaware of the 9 times he cheated death over the course of his epic campaigns into the east!

 



 



 
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SİTE İÇİ ARAMA       
     
“The Battle of Alexander Versus Darius,” 1644-1655, Cortona, Pietro da (1596-1669).
🔎



  Alexander the Great 356-323 BC

Alexander the Great — KING OF MACEDONIA (B)

Alexander the Great — KING OF MACEDONIA (B)

Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia, (born 356 BCE, Pella, Macedonia [northwest of Thessaloníki, Greece] — died June 13, 323 BCE, Babylon [near Al-Ḥillah, Iraq]), king of Macedonia (336-323 BCE), who overthrew the Persian empire, carried Macedonian arms to India, and laid the foundations for the Hellenistic world of territorial kingdoms. Already in his lifetime the subject of fabulous stories, he later became the hero of a full-scale legend bearing only the sketchiest resemblance to his historical career.
 

Alexander the Great's conquests freed the West from the menace of Persian rule and spread Greek civilization and culture into Asia and Egypt. His vast empire stretched east into India.
 
Life

Life

Life (B)

He was born in 356 BCE at Pella in Macedonia, the son of Philip II and Olympias (daughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus). From age 13 to 16 he was taught by Aristotle,who inspired him with an interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation, but he was later to advance beyond his teacher’s narrow precept that non-Greeks should be treated as slaves. {!} Left in charge of Macedonia in 340 during Philip’s attack on Byzantium, Alexander defeated the Maedi, a Thracian people. Two years later he commanded the left wing at the Battle of Chaeronea, in which Philip defeated the allied Greek states, and displayed personal courage in breaking the Sacred Band of Thebes, an elite military corps composed of 150 pairs of lovers. A year later Philip divorced Olympias, and, after a quarrel at a feast held to celebrate his father’s new marriage, Alexander and his mother fled to Epirus, and Alexander later went to Illyria. Shortly afterward, father and son were reconciled and Alexander returned, but his position as heir was jeopardized.


Olympias.
 
   

In 336, however, on Philip’s assassination, Alexander, acclaimed by the army, succeeded without opposition. He at once executed the princes of Lyncestis, alleged to be behind Philip’s murder, along with all possible rivals and the whole of the faction opposed to him. He then marched south, recovered a wavering Thessaly, and at an assembly of the Greek League of Corinth was appointed generalissimo for the forthcoming invasion of Asia, already planned and initiated by Philip. Returning to Macedonia by way of Delphi (where the Pythian priestess acclaimed him “invincible”), he advanced into Thrace in spring 335 and, after forcing the Shipka Pass and crushing the Triballi, crossed the Danube to disperse the Getae; turning west, he then defeated and shattered a coalition of Illyrians who had invaded Macedonia. Meanwhile, a rumour of his death had precipitated a revolt of Theban democrats; other Greek states favoured Thebes, and the Athenians, urged on by Demosthenes, voted help. In 14 days Alexander marched 240 miles from Pelion (near modern Korçë, Albania) in Illyria to Thebes. When the Thebans refused to surrender, he made an entry and razed their city to the ground, sparing only temples and Pindar’s house; 6,000 were killed and all survivors sold into slavery. The other Greek states were cowed by this severity, and Alexander could afford to treat Athens leniently. Macedonian garrisons were left in Corinth, Chalcis, and the Cadmea (the citadel of Thebes).

 

Olympia Presenting The Young Alexander The Great To Aristotle, painting by Gerard Hoet.

 



 
Beginnings of the Persian expedition

Beginnings of the Persian expedition

Beginnings of the Persian expedition (B)

From his accession Alexander had set his mind on the Persian expedition. He had grown up to the idea. Moreover, he needed the wealth of Persia if he was to maintain the army built by Philip and pay off the 500 talents he owed. The exploits of the Ten Thousand, Greek soldiers of fortune, and of Agesilaus of Sparta, in successfully campaigning in Persian territory had revealed the vulnerability of the Persian empire. With a good cavalry force Alexander could expect to defeat any Persian army. In spring 334 he crossed the Dardanelles, leaving Antipater, who had already faithfully served his father, as his deputy in Europe with over 13,000 men; he himself commanded about 30,000 foot and over 5,000 cavalry, of whom nearly 14,000 were Macedonians and about 7,000 allies sent by the Greek League. This army was to prove remarkable for its balanced combination of arms. Much work fell on the lightarmed Cretan and Macedonian archers, Thracians, and the Agrianian javelin men. But in pitched battle the striking force was the cavalry, and the core of the army, should the issue still remain undecided after the cavalry charge, was the infantry phalanx, 9,000 strong, armed with 13-foot spears and shields, and the 3,000 men of the royal battalions, the hypaspists. Alexander’s second in command was Parmenio, who had secured a foothold in Asia Minor during Philip’s lifetime; many of his family and supporters were entrenched in positions of responsibility. The army was accompanied by surveyors, engineers, architects, scientists, court officials, and historians; from the outset Alexander seems to have envisaged an unlimited operation.



Battle of Granicus.


After visiting Ilium (Troy), a romantic gesture inspired by Homer, he confronted his first Persian army, led by three satraps, at the Granicus(modern Kocabaş) River, near the Sea of Marmara (May/June 334). The Persian plan to tempt Alexander across the river and kill him in the melee almost succeeded; but the Persian line broke, and Alexander’s victory was complete. Darius’s Greek mercenaries were largely massacred, but 2,000 survivors were sent back to Macedonia in chains. This victory exposed western Asia Minor to the Macedonians, and most cities hastened to open their gates. The tyrants were expelled and (in contrast to Macedonian policy in Greece) democracies were installed. Alexander thus underlined his Panhellenic policy, already symbolized in the sending of 300 panoplies (sets of armour) taken at the Granicus as an offering dedicated to Athena at Athens by “Alexander son of Philip and the Greeks (except the Spartans) from the barbarians who inhabit Asia.” (This formula, cited by the Greek historian Arrian in his history of Alexander’s campaigns, is noteworthy for its omission of any reference to Macedonia.) But the cities remained de facto under Alexander, and his appointment of Calas as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia reflected his claim to succeed the Great King of Persia. When Miletus, encouraged by the proximity of the Persian fleet, resisted, Alexander took it by assault, but, refusing a naval battle, he disbanded his own costly navy and announced that he would “defeat the Persian fleet on land,” by occupying the coastal cities. In Caria, Halicarnassus resisted and was stormed, but Ada, the widow and sister of the satrap Idrieus, adopted Alexander as her son and, after expelling her brother Pixodarus, Alexander restored her to her satrapy. Some parts of Caria held out, however, until 332.
 

“The capture of Miletus,” by Andre Castaigne (1898-1899).
 

 



 
Asia Minor and the Battle of Issus

Asia Minor and the Battle of Issus

Asia Minor and the Battle of Issus (B)


Circa 333 BC, Darius III, king of Persia, fleeing in a chariot after defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great's army. Original Artwork: Drawing (of 1821) by Pinelli.
 
   

In winter 334-333 Alexander conquered western Asia Minor, subduing the hill tribes of Lycia and Pisidia, and in spring 333 he advanced along the coastal road to Perga, passing the cliffs of Mount Climax, thanks to a fortunate change of wind. The fall in the level of the sea was interpreted as a mark of divine favour by Alexander’s flatterers, including the historian Callisthenes. At Gordium in Phrygia, tradition records his cutting of the Gordian knot, which could only be loosed by the man who was to rule Asia; but this story may be apocryphal or at least distorted. At this point Alexander benefitted from the sudden death of Memnon, the competent Greek commander of the Persian fleet. From Gordium he pushed on to Ancyra (modern Ankara) and thence south through Cappadocia and the Cilician Gates (modern Külek Boğazi); a fever held him up for a time in Cilicia. Meanwhile, Darius with his Grand Army had advanced northward on the eastern side of Mount Amanus. Intelligence on both sides was faulty, and Alexander was already encamped by Myriandrus (near modern İskenderun, Turkey) when he learned that Darius was astride his line of communications at Issus, north of Alexander’s position (autumn 333). Turning, Alexander found Darius drawn up along the Pinarus River. In the battle that followed, Alexander won a decisive victory. The struggle turned into a Persian rout and Darius fled, leaving his family in Alexander’s hands; the women were treated with chivalrous care.

 

AlbrechtAltdorfer, “Schlacht bei Issus” (Alte Pinakothek, München).

 



 
Conquest of the Mediterranean coast and Egypt

Conquest of the Mediterranean coast and Egypt

Conquest of the Mediterranean coast and Egypt (B)


“Entry of Alexander into Babylon,” Charles Le Brun.

 

From Issus Alexander marched south into Syria and Phoenicia, his object being to isolate the Persian fleet from its bases and so to destroy it as an effective fighting force. The Phoenician cities Marathus and Aradus came over quietly, and Parmenio was sent ahead to secure Damascus and its rich booty, including Darius’s war chest. In reply to a letter from Darius offering peace, Alexander replied arrogantly, recapitulating the historic wrongs of Greece and demanding unconditional surrender to himself as lord of Asia. After taking Byblos (modern Jubayl) and Sidon (Arabic Ṣaydā), he met with a check at Tyre, where he was refused entry into the island city. He thereupon prepared to use all methods of siegecraft to take it, but the Tyrians resisted, holding out for seven months. In the meantime (winter 333-332) the Persians had counterattacked by land in Asia Minor — where they were defeated by Antigonus, the satrap of Greater Phrygia — and by sea, recapturing a number of cities and islands.


Siege of Tyre 322 BC.

A naval action during the siege of Tyre, by Andre Castaigne (1898-1899).

Macedonian soldiers attacking Tyre.

 

While the siege of Tyre was in progress, Darius sent a new offer: he would pay a huge ransom of 10,000 talents for his family and cede all his lands west of the Euphrates. “I would accept,” Parmenio is reported to have said, “were I Alexander”; “I too,” was the famous retort, “were I Parmenio.” The storming of Tyre in July 332 was Alexander’s greatest military achievement; it was attended with great carnage and the sale of the women and children into slavery. Leaving Parmenio in Syria, Alexander advanced south without opposition until he reached Gaza on its high mound; there bitter resistance halted him for two months, and he sustained a serious shoulder wound during a sortie. There is no basis for the tradition that he turned aside to visit Jerusalem.

In November 332 he reached Egypt. The people welcomed him as their deliverer, and the Persian satrap Mazaces wisely surrendered. At Memphis Alexander sacrificed to Apis, the Greek term for Hapi, the sacred Egyptian bull, and was crowned with the traditional double crown of the pharaohs; the native priests were placated and their religion encouraged. He spent the winter organizing Egypt, where he employed Egyptian governors, keeping the army under a separate Macedonian command. He founded the city of Alexandria near the western arm of the Nile on a fine site between the sea and Lake Mareotis, protected by the island of Pharos, and had it laid out by the Rhodian architect Deinocrates. He is also said to have sent an expedition to discover the causes of the flooding of the Nile. From Alexandria he marched along the coast to Paraetonium and from there inland to visit the celebrated oracle of the god Amon (at Sīwah); the difficult journey was later embroidered with flattering legends. On his reaching the oracle in its oasis, the priest gave him the traditional salutation of a pharaoh, as son of Amon; Alexander consulted the god on the success of his expedition but revealed the reply to no one. Later the incident was to contribute to the story that he was the son of Zeus and, thus, to his “deification.” In spring 331 he returned to Tyre, appointed a Macedonian satrap for Syria, and prepared to advance into Mesopotamia. His conquest of Egypt had completed his control of the whole eastern Mediterranean coast.

In July 331 Alexander was at Thapsacus on the Euphrates. Instead of taking the direct route down the river to Babylon, he made across northern Mesopotamia toward the Tigris, and Darius, learning of this move from an advance force sent under Mazaeus to the Euphrates crossing, marched up the Tigris to oppose him. The decisive battle of the war was fought on October 31, on the plain of Gaugamela between Nineveh and Arbela. Alexander pursued the defeated Persian forces for 35 miles to Arbela, but Darius escaped with his Bactrian cavalry and Greek mercenaries into Media.

Alexander now occupied Babylon, city and province; Mazaeus, who surrendered it, was confirmed as satrap in conjunction with a Macedonian troop commander, and quite exceptionally was granted the right to coin. As in Egypt, the local priesthood was encouraged. Susa, the capital, also surrendered, releasing huge treasures amounting to 50,000 gold talents; here Alexander established Darius’s family in comfort. Crushing the mountain tribe of the Ouxians, he now pressed on over the Zagros range into Persia proper and, successfully turning the Pass of the Persian Gates, held by the satrap Ariobarzanes, he entered Persepolis and Pasargadae. At Persepolis he ceremonially burned down the palace of Xerxes, as a symbol that the Panhellenic war of revenge was at an end; for such seems the probable significance of an act that tradition later explained as a drunken frolic inspired by Thaïs, an Athenian courtesan. In spring 330 Alexander marched north into Media and occupied its capital. The Thessalians and Greek allies were sent home; henceforward he was waging a purely personal war.



“The Family of Darius before Alexander,”
Charles Le Brun.

Louis-Jean-François Lagrenée.
The death of the wife of Darius in the presence of Alexander.

 

As Mazaeus’s appointment indicated, Alexander’s views on the empire were changing. He had come to envisage a joint ruling people consisting of Macedonians and Persians, and this served to augment the misunderstanding that now arose between him and his people. Before continuing his pursuit of Darius, who had retreated into Bactria, he assembled all the Persian treasure and entrusted it to Harpalus, who was to hold it at Ecbatana as chief treasurer. Parmenio was also left behind in Media to control communications; the presence of this older man had perhaps become irksome.

In midsummer 330 Alexander set out for the eastern provinces at a high speed via Rhagae (modern Rayy, near Tehrān) and the Caspian Gates, where he learned that Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, had deposed Darius. After a skirmish near modern Shāhrūd, the usurper had Darius stabbed and left him to die. Alexander sent his body for burial with due honours in the royal tombs at Persepolis.



Alexander the great discovering the body of Darius, 1894 Engraving.

 



 
Campaign eastward to Central Asia

Campaign eastward to Central Asia

Campaign eastward to Central Asia (B)

Darius’s death left no obstacle to Alexander’s claim to be Great King, and a Rhodian inscription of this year (330) calls him “lord of Asia” — i.e., of the Persian empire; soon afterward his Asian coins carry the title of king. Crossing the Elburz Mountains to the Caspian, he seized Zadracarta in Hyrcania and received the submission of a group of satraps and Persian notables, some of whom he confirmed in their offices; in a diversion westward, perhaps to modern Āmol, he reduced the Mardi, a mountain people who inhabited the Elburz Mountains. He also accepted the surrender of Darius’s Greek mercenaries. His advance eastward was now rapid. In Aria he reduced Satibarzanes, who had offered submission only to revolt, and he founded Alexandria of the Arians (modern Herāt). At Phrada in Drangiana (either near modern Nad-e ʿAli in Seistan or farther north at Farah), he at last took steps to destroy Parmenio and his family. Philotas, Parmenio’s son, commander of the elite Companion cavalry, was implicated in an alleged plot against Alexander’s life, condemned by the army, and executed; and a secret message was sent to Cleander, Parmenio’s second in command, who obediently assassinated him. This ruthless action excited widespread horror but strengthened Alexander’s position relative to his critics and those whom he regarded as his father’s men. All Parmenio’s adherents were now eliminated and men close to Alexander promoted. The Companion cavalry was reorganized in two sections, each containing four squadrons (now known as hipparchies); one group was commanded by Alexander’s oldest friend, Hephaestion, the other by Cleitus, an older man. From Phrada, Alexander pressed on during the winter of 330-329 up the valley of the Helmand River, through Arachosia, and over the mountains past the site of modern Kābul into the country of the Paropamisadae, where he founded Alexandria by the Caucasus.

Bessus was now in Bactria raising a national revolt in the eastern satrapies with the usurped title of Great King. Crossing the Hindu Kush northward over the Khawak Pass (11,650 feet [3,550 metres]), Alexander brought his army, despite food shortages, to Drapsaca (sometimes identified with modern Banu [Andarab], probably farther north at Qunduz); outflanked, Bessus fled beyond the Oxus (modern Amu Darya), and Alexander, marching west to Bactra-Zariaspa (modern Balkh [Wazirabad] in Afghanistan), appointed loyal satraps in Bactria and Aria. Crossing the Oxus, he sent his general Ptolemy in pursuit of Bessus, who had meanwhile been overthrown by the Sogdian Spitamenes. Bessus was captured, flogged, and sent to Bactra, where he was later mutilated after the Persian manner (losing his nose and ears); in due course he was publicly executed at Ecbatana.

From Maracanda (modern Samarkand) Alexander advanced by way of Cyropolis to the Jaxartes (modern Syrdarya), the boundary of the Persian empire. There he broke the opposition of the Scythian nomads by his use of catapults and, after defeating them in a battle on the north bank of the river, pursued them into the interior. On the site of modern Leninabad ( Khojent) on the Jaxartes, he founded a city, Alexandria Eschate, “the farthest.” Meanwhile, Spitamenes had raised all Sogdiana in revolt behind him, bringing in the Massagetai, a people of the Shaka confederacy. It took Alexander until the autumn of 328 to crush the most determined opponent he encountered in his campaigns. Later in the same year he attacked Oxyartes and the remaining barons who held out in the hills of Paraetacene (modern Tajikistan); volunteers seized the crag on which Oxyartes had his stronghold, and among the captives was his daughter, Roxana. In reconciliation Alexander married her, and the rest of his opponents were either won over or crushed.

An incident that occurred at Maracanda widened the breach between Alexander and many of his Macedonians. He murdered Cleitus, one of his most-trusted commanders, in a drunken quarrel, but his excessive display of remorse led the army to pass a decree convicting Cleitus posthumously of treason. The event marked a step in Alexander’s progress toward Eastern absolutism, and this growing attitude found its outward expression in his use of Persian royal dress. Shortly afterward, at Bactra, he attempted to impose the Persian court ceremonial, involving prostration (proskynesis), on the Greeks and Macedonians too, but to them this custom, habitual for Persians entering the king’s presence, implied an act of worship and was intolerable before a human. Even Callisthenes, historian and nephew of Aristotle, whose ostentatious flattery had perhaps encouraged Alexander to see himself in the role of a god, refused to abase himself. Macedonian laughter caused the experiment to founder, and Alexander abandoned it. Shortly afterward, however, Callisthenes was held to be privy to a conspiracy among the royal pages and was executed (or died in prison; accounts vary); resentment of this action alienated sympathy from Alexander within the Peripatetic school of philosophers, with which Callisthenes had close connections.

 



 

Invasion of India


Invasion of India

Invasion of India (B)




Victory of Alexander the Great over the Indian prince Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes, 326 BCE; from The Battle Between Alexander and Porus, oil on canvas by Nicolaes Pietersz Berchem.

A painting by Charles Le Brun depicting Alexander and Porus (Puru) during the Battle of the Hydaspes.


In early summer 327 Alexander left Bactria with a reinforced army under a reorganized command. If Plutarch’s figure of 120,000 men has any reality, however, it must include all kinds of auxiliary services, together with muleteers, camel drivers, medical corps, peddlers, entertainers, women, and children; the fighting strength perhaps stood at about 35,000. Recrossing the Hindu Kush, probably by Bamiyan and the Ghorband Valley, Alexander divided his forces. Half the army with the baggage under Hephaestion and Perdiccas, both cavalry commanders, was sent through the Khyber Pass, while he himself led the rest, together with his siege train, through the hills to the north. His advance through Swāt and Gandhāra was marked by the storming of the almost impregnable pinnacle of Aornos, the modern Pir-Sar, a few miles west of the Indus and north of the Buner River, an impressive feat of siegecraft. In spring 326, crossing the Indus near Attock, Alexander entered Taxila, whose ruler, Taxiles, furnished elephants and troops in return for aid against his rival Porus, who ruled the lands between the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum) and the Acesines (modern Chenāb). In June Alexander fought his last great battle on the left bank of the Hydaspes. He founded two cities there, Alexandria Nicaea (to celebrate his victory) and Bucephala (named after his horse Bucephalus, which died there); and Porus became his ally.

How much Alexander knew of India beyond the Hyphasis (probably the modern Beas) is uncertain; there is no conclusive proof that he had heard of the Ganges. But he was anxious to press on farther, and he had advanced to the Hyphasis when his army mutinied, refusing to go farther in the tropical rain; they were weary in body and spirit, and Coenus, one of Alexander’s four chief marshals, acted as their spokesman. On finding the army adamant, Alexander agreed to turn back.

On the Hyphasis he erected 12 altars to the 12 Olympian gods, and on the Hydaspes he built a fleet of 800 to 1,000 ships. Leaving Porus, he then proceeded down the river and into the Indus, with half his forces on shipboard and half marching in three columns down the two banks. The fleet was commanded by Nearchus, and Alexander’s own captain was Onesicritus; both later wrote accounts of the campaign. The march was attended with much fighting and heavy, pitiless slaughter; at the storming of one town of the Malli near the Hydraotes (Ravi) River, Alexander received a severe wound which left him weakened.

On reaching Patala, located at the head of the Indus delta, he built a harbour and docks and explored both arms of the Indus, which probably then ran into the Rann of Kachchh. He planned to lead part of his forces back by land, while the rest in perhaps 100 to 150 ships under the command of Nearchus, a Cretan with naval experience, made a voyage of exploration along the Persian Gulf. Local opposition led Nearchus to set sail in September (325), and he was held up for three weeks until he could pick up the northeast monsoon in late October. In September Alexander too set out along the coast through Gedrosia (modern Baluchistan), but he was soon compelled by mountainous country to turn inland, thus failing in his project to establish food depots for the fleet. Craterus, a high-ranking officer, already had been sent off with the baggage and siege train, the elephants, and the sick and wounded, together with three battalions of the phalanx, by way of the Mulla Pass, Quetta, and Kandahar into the Helmand Valley; from there he was to march through Drangiana to rejoin the main army on the Amanis (modern Minab) River in Carmania. Alexander’s march through Gedrosia proved disastrous; waterless desert and shortage of food and fuel caused great suffering, and many, especially women and children, perished in a sudden monsoon flood while encamped in a wadi. At length, at the Amanis, he was rejoined by Nearchus and the fleet, which also had suffered losses.

 



 
Consolidation of the empire

Consolidation of the empire

Consolidation of the empire (B)

Alexander now proceeded farther with the policy of replacing senior officials and executing defaulting governors on which he had already embarked before leaving India. Between 326 and 324 over a third of his satraps were superseded and six were put to death, including the Persian satraps of Persis, Susiana, Carmania, and Paraetacene; three generals in Media, including Cleander, the brother of Coenus (who had died a little earlier), were accused of extortion and summoned to Carmania, where they were arrested, tried, and executed. How far the rigour that from now onward Alexander displayed against his governors represents exemplary punishment for gross maladministration during his absence and how far the elimination of men he had come to distrust (as in the case of Philotas and Parmenio) is debatable; but the ancient sources generally favourable to him comment adversely on his severity.

In spring 324 he was back in Susa, capital of Elam and administrative centre of the Persian empire; the story of his journey through Carmania in a drunken revel, dressed as Dionysus, is embroidered, if not wholly apocryphal. He found that his treasurer, Harpalus, evidently fearing punishment for peculation, had absconded with 6,000 mercenaries and 5,000 talents to Greece; arrested in Athens, he escaped and later was murdered in Crete. At Susa Alexander held a feast to celebrate the seizure of the Persian empire, at which, in furtherance of his policy of fusing Macedonians and Persians into one master race, he and 80 of his officers took Persian wives; he and Hephaestion married Darius’s daughters Barsine (also called Stateira) and Drypetis, respectively, and 10,000 of his soldiers with native wives were given generous dowries.

This policy of racial fusion brought increasing friction to Alexander’s relations with his Macedonians, who had no sympathy for his changed concept of the empire. His determination to incorporate Persians on equal terms in the army and the administration of the provinces was bitterly resented. This discontent was now fanned by the arrival of 30,000 native youths who had received a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Asian peoples from Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, and other parts of the empire into the Companion cavalry; whether Asians had previously served with the Companions is uncertain, but if so they must have formed separate squadrons. In addition, Persian nobles had been accepted into the royal cavalry bodyguard. Peucestas, the new governor of Persis, gave this policy full support to flatter Alexander; but most Macedonians saw it as a threat to their own privileged position.

The issue came to a head at Opis (324), when Alexander’s decision to send home Macedonian veterans under Craterus was interpreted as a move toward transferring the seat of power to Asia. There was an open mutiny involving all but the royal bodyguard; but when Alexander dismissed his whole army and enrolled Persians instead, the opposition broke down. An emotional scene of reconciliation was followed by a vast banquet with 9,000 guests to celebrate the ending of the misunderstanding and the partnership in government of Macedonians and Persians — but not, as has been argued, the incorporation of all the subject peoples as partners in the commonwealth. Ten thousand veterans were now sent back to Macedonia with gifts, and the crisis was surmounted.

In summer 324 Alexander attempted to solve another problem, that of the wandering mercenaries, of whom there were thousands in Asia and Greece, many of them political exiles from their own cities. A decree brought by Nicanor to Europe and proclaimed at Olympia (September 324) required the Greek cities of the Greek League to receive back all exiles and their families (except the Thebans), a measure that implied some modification of the oligarchic regimes maintained in the Greek cities by Alexander’s governor Antipater. Alexander now planned to recall Antipater and supersede him by Craterus, but he was to die before this could be done.

In autumn 324 Hephaestion died in Ecbatana, and Alexander indulged in extravagant mourning for his closest friend; he was given a royal funeral in Babylon with a pyre costing 10,000 talents. His post of chiliarch (grand vizier) was left unfilled. It was probably in connection with a general order now sent out to the Greeks to honour Hephaestion as a hero that Alexander linked the demand that he himself should be accorded divine honours. For a long time his mind had dwelt on ideas of godhead. Greek thought drew no very decided line of demarcation between god and man, for legend offered more than one example of men who, by their achievements, acquired divine status. Alexander had on several occasions encouraged favourable comparison of his own accomplishments with those of Dionysus or Heracles. He now seems to have become convinced of the reality of his own divinity and to have required its acceptance by others. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background (divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city); it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. The cities perforce complied, but often ironically: the Spartan decree read, “Since Alexander wishes to be a god, let him be a god.”

In the winter of 324 Alexander carried out a savage punitive expedition against the Cossaeans in the hills of Luristan. The following spring at Babylon he received complimentary embassies from the Libyans and from the Bruttians, Etruscans, and Lucanians of Italy; but the story that embassies also came from more distant peoples, such as Carthaginians, Celts, Iberians, and even Romans, is a later invention. Representatives of the cities of Greece also came, garlanded as befitted Alexander’s divine status. Following up Nearchus’s voyage, he now founded an Alexandria at the mouth of the Tigris and made plans to develop sea communications with India, for which an expedition along the Arabian coast was to be a preliminary. He also dispatched Heracleides, an officer, to explore the Hyrcanian (i.e., Caspian) Sea. Suddenly, in Babylon, while busy with plans to improve the irrigation of the Euphrates and to settle the coast of the Persian Gulf, Alexander was taken ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout; 10 days later, on June 13, 323, he died in his 33rd year; he had reigned for 12 years and eight months. His body, diverted to Egypt by Ptolemy, the later king, was eventually placed in a golden coffin in Alexandria. Both in Egypt and elsewhere in the Greek cities he received divine honours.

No heir had been appointed to the throne, and his generals adopted Philip II’s half-witted illegitimate son, Philip Arrhidaeus, and Alexander’s posthumous son by Roxana, Alexander IV, as kings, sharing out the satrapies among themselves, after much bargaining. The empire could hardly survive Alexander’s death as a unit. Both kings were murdered, Arrhidaeus in 317 and Alexander in 310/309. The provinces became independent kingdoms, and the generals, following Antigonus’s lead in 306, took the title of king.

 



 
Evaluation

Evaluation

Evaluation (B)

Of Alexander’s plans little reliable information survives. The far-reaching schemes for the conquest of the western Mediterranean and the setting up of a universal monarchy, recorded by Diodorus Siculus, a 1st-century Greek historian, are probably based on a later forgery; if not, they were at once jettisoned by his successors and the army. Had he lived, he would no doubt have completed the conquest of Asia Minor, where Paphlagonia, Cappadocia, and Armenia still maintained an effective independence. But in his later years Alexander’s aims seem to have been directed toward exploration, in particular of Arabia and the Caspian.

In the organization of his empire, Alexander had been content in many spheres to improvise and adapt what he found. His financial policy is an exception; though the details cannot be wholly recovered, it is clear that he set up a central organization with collectors perhaps independent of the local satraps. That this proved a failure was partly due to weaknesses in the character of Harpalus, his chief treasurer. But the establishment of a new coinage with a silver standard based on that of Athens in place of the old bimetallic system current both in Macedonia and in Persia helped trade everywhere and, combined with the release of vast amounts of bullion from the Persian treasuries, gave a much-needed fillip to the economy of the whole Mediterranean area.

Alexander’s foundation of new citiesPlutarch speaks of over 70 — initiated a new chapter in Greek expansion. No doubt many of the colonists, by no means volunteers, deserted these cities, and marriages with native women led to some dilution of Greek ways; but the Greek (rather than Macedonian) influence remained strong in most of them, and since the process was carried further by Alexander’s Seleucid successors, the spread of Hellenic thought and customs over much of Asia as far as Bactria and India was one of the more striking effects of Alexander’s conquests.

His plans for racial fusion, on the other hand, were a failure. The Iranian satraps were perhaps not efficient, for, out of 18, 10 were removed or executed — with what justice it is no longer possible to say. But, more important, the Macedonians, leaders and men alike, rejected the idea, and in the later Seleucid empire the Greek and Macedonian element was to be clearly dominant.

How far Alexander would have succeeded in the difficult task of coordinating his vast dominions, had he lived, is hard to determine. The only link between the many units that went to make up an empire more disparate than that of the Habsburgs, {?} and far larger, was his own person; and his death came before he could tackle this problem.

What had so far held it all together was his own dynamic personality. He combined an iron will and ability to drive himself and his men to the utmost with a supple and flexible mind; he knew when to draw back and change his policy, though he did this reluctantly. He was imaginative and not without romantic impulses; figures like Achilles, Heracles, and Dionysus were often in his mind, and the salutation at the oracle of Amon clearly influenced his thoughts and ambitions ever afterward. He was swift in anger, and under the strain of his long campaigns this side of his character grew more pronounced. Ruthless and self-willed, he had increasing recourse to terror, showing no hesitation in eliminating men whom he had ceased to trust, either with or without the pretense of a fair trial. Years after his death, Cassander, son of Antipater, a regent of the Macedonian empire under Alexander, could not pass his statue at Delphi without shuddering. {!} Yet he maintained the loyalty of his men, who followed him to the Hyphasis without complaining and continued to believe in him throughout all hardships. Only when his whim would have taken them still farther into unknown India did he fail to get his way.

As a general Alexander is among the greatest the world has known. He showed unusual versatility both in the combination of different arms and in adapting his tactics to the challenge of enemies who commanded novel forms of warfare — the Shaka nomads, the Indian hill tribes, or Porus with his elephants. His strategy was skillful and imaginative, and he knew how to exploit the chances that arise in every battle and may be decisive for victory or defeat; he also drew the last advantage from victory by relentless pursuit. His use of cavalry was so effective that he rarely had to fall back upon his infantry to deliver the crushing blow.

Alexander’s short reign marks a decisive moment in the history of Europe and Asia. His expedition and his own personal interest in scientific investigation brought many advances in the knowledge of geography and natural history. His career led to the moving of the great centres of civilization eastward and initiated the new age of the Greek territorial monarchies; it spread Hellenism in a vast colonizing wave throughout the Middle East and created, if not politically at least economically and culturally, a single world stretching from Gibraltar to the Punjab, open to trade and social intercourse and with a considerable overlay of common civilization and the Greek koinē as a lingua franca. It is not untrue to say that the Roman Empire, the spread of Christianity as a world religion, and the long centuries of Byzantium were all in some degree the fruits of Alexander’s achievement.

 



 



Alexander the Great (w)

Alexander the Great 356-323 BC (W)

Alexander the Great
Argead dynasty
Born: 356 BC 323 BC
Regnal titles
Preceded by
Philip II
King of Macedon
336-323 BC
Succeeded by
Philip III and Alexander IV
Preceded by
Darius III
Great King (Shah) of Persia
330-323 BC
Pharaoh of Egypt
332-323 BC
New creation Lord of Asia
331-323 BC

📂 DATA

DATA

Reign 336-323 BC
Predecessor Philip II
Successor
Reign 336 BC
Predecessor Philip II
Pharaoh of Egypt
Reign 332-323 BC
Predecessor Darius III
Successor
  • Alexander IV
  • Philip III
King of Persia
Reign 330-323 BC
Predecessor Darius III
Successor
  • Alexander IV
  • Philip III
Lord of Asia
Reign 331-323 BC
Predecessor New office
Successor
  • Alexander IV
  • Philip III
 
Born 20 or 21 July 356 BC
Pella, Macedon, Ancient Greece
Died 10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32)
Babylon, Mesopotamia
Spouse
Issue Alexander IV
Heracles of Macedon (alleged illegitimate son)
Full name
Alexander III of Macedon
Greek
    • Μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος
    • Mégas Aléxandros
    • lit. 'Great Alexander'
    • Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας
    • Aléxandros ho Mégas
    • lit. 'Alexander the Great'
Dynasty Argead
Father Philip II of Macedon
Mother Olympias of Epirus
Religion Greek polytheism

 





Aexander the Great at battle of Gaugamela (from 1876).
 
   

Alexander III of Macedon (Αλέξανδρος Γ΄ ὁ Μακεδών; 20/21 July 356 BC - 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great (Ancient Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας, translit. Aléxandros ho Mégas), was a king (basileus) of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty. He was born in Pella in 356 BC and succeeded his father Philip II to the throne at the age of twenty. He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through Asia and northeast Africa, and he created one of the largest empires of the ancient world by the age of thirty, stretching from Greece to northwestern India. He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history's most successful military commanders.

 

The murder of King Philip in 336 BC at Aegae, Greece by Pausanias of Orestis, one of his seven bodyguards.
 

Aexander the Great and Aristotle.
 
   

During his youth, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until age 16. After Philip’s assassination in 336 BC, he succeeded his father to the throne and inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. Alexander was awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his father's pan-Hellenic project to lead the Greeks in the conquest of Persia. In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Empire (Persian Empire) and began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years. Following the conquest of Anatolia, Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He subsequently overthrew Persian King Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety. At that point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River.

He endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" and invaded India in 326 BC, winning an important victory over the Pauravas at the Battle of the Hydaspes. He eventually turned back at the demand of his homesick troops. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, the city that he planned to establish as his capital, without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in the establishment of several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander's surviving generals and heirs.

Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism which his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism. He founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization, aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century AD and the presence of Greek speakers in central and far eastern Anatolia until the 1920s. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles, and he features prominently in the history and mythic traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves, and military academies throughout the world still teach his tactics. He is often ranked among the most influential people in history.


Early life (W)

Lineage and childhood

Lineage and childhood (W)

 


Portrait of Olympias (375-316 BC), mother of Alexander the Great, on ancient coin.
 
   

Alexander was born in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon, on the sixth day of the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion, which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC, although the exact date is uncertain. He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus. Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander.

Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood. According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread "far and wide" before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a seal engraved with a lion's image. Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious.


”Olympia Presenting The Young Alexander The Great To Aristotle,” by Gerard Hoet.


Cassandre et Olympias by Jean-Joseph Taillasson (1745-1809).
History painter and writer, Jean-Joseph Taillasson was a pupil of Vien and one of the firmest supporters of his master's artistic conceptions. Mother of Alexandre the Great, Olympias became regent of Macedonia after the death of her son. But Cassandra, one of Alexander's successors, sent a troop of soldiers to kill her while she was taking refuge in Pydna. The Salon book of 1799 indicates that your soldiers "disarmed by respect, themselves having horrors of an assassination, [they] did not want to obey. History however indicates that Olympias, made odious by the executions which it had ordered, was abandoned to its enemy which made it put to death. The composition in frieze, strictly neoclassical, the elegant and measured type of characters, even in the expression of feelings, seem to bring an echo of 17th century Parisian painting. (LINK)
 
.

Cleopatra of Macedonia (c. 355/354 BC – 308 BC), or Cleopatra of Epirus, was an Macedonian princess and later queen regent of Epirus. The daughter of Philip II of Macedon and Olympias of Epirus, she was the only full sibling of Alexander the Great. Her other siblings include half sisters Thessalonike and Cynane, and half-brother Philip III of Macedon.

(W)

 

 

On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games. It was also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander. Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception.


“Alexander The Great Riding Bucephalus,” James E McConnell.
 
   

In his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, Lanike, sister of Alexander's future general Cleitus the Black. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by Lysimachus of Acarnania. Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.

When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen talents. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander, however, detecting the horse’s fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed. Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him. Alexander named it Bucephalas, meaning "ox-head". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as India. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala.

 

The taming of Bucephalus by Alexander the Great, 4th century BC. Alexander III of Macedon, 356 BC – 323 BC, commonly known as Alexander the Great. From Hutchinson's History of the Nations, published 1915.
 
   

 



Education

Education (W)

 

When Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a tutor, and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of the Academy to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle’s hometown of Stageira, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.

 
   

Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and Cassander. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the ‘Companions.’ Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer, and in particular the Iliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.

During his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposed Artaxerxes III. Among them were Artabazos II and his daughter Barsine, future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well as Amminapes, future satrap of Alexander, or a Persian nobleman named Sisines. This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state.

Suda writes that, also, Anaximenes of Lampsacus was one of his teachers. Anaximenes, also accompanied him on his campaigns.

 

A painting by Charles Le Brun depicting Alexander and Hephaestion (in red cloak), facing Porus, during the Battle of the Hydaspes.

 



 
Philip’s heir (W)

Regency and ascent of Macedon

Regency and ascent of Macedon (W)

 

 
   

At age 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip waged war against Byzantion, leaving Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent. During Philip's absence, the Thracian Maedi revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He colonized it with Greeks, and founded a city named Alexandropolis.

Upon Philip's return, he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue revolts in southern Thrace. Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander is reported to have saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in Thrace, he ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.

Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through Thermopylae, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes. The Athenians, led by Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes' favour, but Athens won the contest. Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it.

As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea, Boeotia. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.

After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached Sparta, they were refused, but did not resort to war. At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named Hegemon (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as the League of Corinth), and announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire.

 

Thebeans and Macedonians in battle.

 



Exile and return

Exile and return (W)

 

When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice in 338 BC, the niece of his general Attalus. The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian. During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir.


“At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor. At which Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another."”

— Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.

 

In 337 BC, Alexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King Alexander I of Epirus in Dodona, capital of the Molossians. He continued to Illyria, where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings, perhaps with Glaukias, and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before. However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties.

In the following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus. Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir. Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him. Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.

 



 
King of Macedon (W)

Accession

Accession (W)

In summer 336 BC, while at Aegae attending the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias's brother, Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards, Pausanias. As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and army at the age of 20.


The murder of King Philip in 336 BC at Aegae, Greece by Pausanias of Orestis, one of his seven bodyguards.

 



Consolidation of power

Consolidation of power (W)

 

Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed. He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed, but spared a third, Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus, who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle.

Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive. Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias.

News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards the Peloponnese.

Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic occurred during Alexander’s stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight. This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said “But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes.” At Corinth, Alexander took the title of Hegemon (“leader”) and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.

 



Balkan campaign

Balkan campaign (W)

 

Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights. The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi, and defeated their army near the Lyginus river (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish.

News then reached Alexander that Cleitus, King of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the Taulantii were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.


The sacking of Thebes, Greece, in 335 BC by Alexander The Great, aka Alexander III of Macedon. From Hutchinson's History of the Nations, published 1915.
 
   

While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south. While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace. Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving Antipater as regent.

According to ancient writers Demosthenes called Alexander, "Margites" (Greek: Μαργίτης) and a boy. Greeks used the word Margites to describe fool and useless people, on account of the Margites.

 

The Macedonian phalanx at the "Battle of the Carts" against the Thracians in 335 BC.
 

 



 
Conquest of the Persian Empire (W)

Asia Minor

Asia Minor (W)

 

In 336 BC Philip II had already sent Parmenion, with Amyntas, Andromenes and Attalus, and an army of 10,000 men into Anatolia to make preparations for an invasion to free the Greeks living on the western coast and islands from Achaemenid rule. At first, all went well. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philip's death and were subsequently defeated near Magnesia by the Achaemenids under the command of the mercenary Memnon of Rhodes.

Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander’s army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000, drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria. He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy.


Alexander the Great sending spoil to Athens after the Battle of the Granicus River, 334 BC. From Hutchinson's History of the Nations, published 1915.
 
   

After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale siege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea. Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander.

From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city. At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia". According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.

 



The Levant and Syria

The Levant and Syria (W)

 

In spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the Taurus into Cilicia. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius' significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at Issus. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous treasure. He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions. Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria, and most of the coast of the Levant. In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, which he captured after a long and difficult siege. The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into slavery.

 



Egypt

Egypt (W)

When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated. However, Alexander met with resistance at Gaza. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt". After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery.

Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator. He was pronounced son of the deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert. Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with the Horns of Ammon as a symbol of his divinity. During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria-by-Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death.

 



Assyria and Babylonia

Assyria and Babylonia (W)

 


Alexander and the body of Darius.
 
   

Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into Mesopotamia (now northern Iraq) and again defeated Darius, at the Battle of Gaugamela. Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two. Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamadan), while Alexander captured Babylon.

 



Persia

Persia (W)

From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its treasury. He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis via the Persian Royal Road. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.


“Thais,” Joshua Reynolds.
 
   

On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days. Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months. During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes I and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War by Xerxes; Plutarch and Diodorus allege that Alexander’s companion, the hetaera Thaïs, instigated and started the fire. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision. Plutarch claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires, but that the flames had already spread to most of the city. Curtius claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning. Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person:

“Shall I pass by and leave you lying there because of the expeditions you led against Greece, or shall I set you up again because of your magnanimity and your virtues in other respects?”

 

 



Fall of the Empire and the East

Fall of the Empire and the East (W)

 



Alexander finds Darius' body.
 
   

Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia. The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius' successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. Alexander buried Darius' remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral. He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne. The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.

Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. The campaign took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia.

In 329 BC, Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed. However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.

 



Problems and plots

Problems and plots (W)

During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis, either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors. The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.

A plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda (modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.

Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. His official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus, was implicated in the plot, and in the Anabasis of Alexander, Arrian states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the rack as punishment, and likely died soon after. It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.

 



Macedon in Alexander's absence

Macedon in Alexander’s absence (W)

When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon. Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence. The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the battle of Megalopolis. Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them. There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other.

In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia. Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire. However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the Third Macedonian War (171-168 BC).

 



 
Indian campaign (W)

Forays into the Indian subcontinent

Forays into the Indian subcontinent (W)

After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old Iranian) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority. Omphis (Indian name Ambhi), the ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes (Jhelum), complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit. Ambhi hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund, supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality.

On the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in the battle of the Hydaspes River. After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus (Indian name Puru), to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of Philip, son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at Triparadisus, 321 BC.

In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys. A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos.

The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble." A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days.

After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against King Porus, who ruled a region lying between the Hydaspes and the Acesines (Chenab), in what is now the Punjab, in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC. Alexander was impressed by Porus' bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus' territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis (Beas). Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece. Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river, naming one Bucephala, in honour of his horse, who died around this time. The other was Nicaea (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-day Mong, Punjab. Philostratus the Elder in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who fought brave against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to the Helios (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ).

 



Revolt of the army

Revolt of the army (W)

East of Porus' kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the Nanda Empire of Magadha, and further east, the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east. This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.

As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants.

Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi (in modern-day Multan) and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege.

Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran. Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.


📹 Alexander: Mutiny at Opis (VİDEO)

📹 Alexander: Mutiny at Opis (LINK)

🛑 📘 İskender’in Askerlerine Seslenişi

İskender’in Askerlerine Seslenişi

ARRİAN
İSKENDER’İN SEFERLERİ
İdea Yayınevi


8.
Opis’e ulaşınca, Makedonyalı askerlerini topladı ve yaşları ya da sakatlıkları nedeniyle daha öte hizmet için uygun olmayan tüm adamların ordudan çıkarıldığını bildirdi. Onları ülkelerine gönderdi. Yola çıkarken her birine dostlarını ve akrabalarını kıskandıracak ve geri kalan Makedonyalıları gelecekte onların emeklerini ve tehlikelerini paylaşmak için heyecanlandıracak şeyler için söz verdi. İskendonatımıylader kendi payına bu sözlerle hiç kuşkusuz adamlarını hoşnut etmeyi amaçlıyordu. Makedonyalılar ise daha şimdiden hizmetlerini küçümsediğini ve onları bir savaş için bütünüyle yararsız gördüğünü duyumsadılar. Böylece, bütünüyle doğal olarak, sözlerini yalnızca bütün sefer boyunca duygularını incitmek için yaptıklarının — örneğin Pers giysilerini benimsemesi, Doğulu “Ardıllar”ın Makedonya kuşandırılması, ve Yoldaşlar süvarisine yabancı askerlerin katılması gibi — bir başka örneği olarak gördüler ve içerlediler. Sonuçta konuşmayı saygılı bir sessizlik içinde dinlemek yerine, kendilerini tutamayarak, ordudaki herkesin çıkarılmasını istediler ve acı bir şaka olarak sonraki seferinde yanına babasını alabileceğini eklediler — ki, görünürde tanrı Ammon’u demek istiyorlardı.

İskender bunları işitince çok kızdı. O sıralar saygısızlığa fazla alınır olmuştu, ve alıştığı Doğulu boyun eğme tutumu Makedonyalılara karşı eski açık yürekli tutumunu büyük ölçüde değiştirmişti. Çevresindeki subaylar ile platformdan sıçradı, parmağı ile kalabalığı karıştırmış olanların en önünde olanları göstererek muhafızlardan onları tutuklamalarını istedi. Bunlar on üç kişiydi, ve tümünün idam edilmeleri buyruğunu verdi.1 Ürkütücü bir sessizlik oldu. İskender bir kez daha kürsüye çıkarak askerlerine seslendi.


9. “Makedonyalılar, şimdi duyduğunuz yurt özleminizi durdurma gibi bir amaçla konuşmayacağım. Nereye isterseniz gidin, sizi engellemeyeceğim. Ama bilin ki, eğer böyle gidecek olursanız, bir şeyi anlamanızı istiyorum — bize nasıl davrandığınızı, ve bizim size nasıl davrandığımızı. Öyleyse size ilkin babam Filip’ten söz edeceğim, çünkü bunu yapmam gerekiyor. Filip sizleri başı boş dolaşan yoksul bir kabile olarak buldu. Çoğunuz postlar giyiyor, dağ yamaçlarında birkaç koyun otlatıyor ve onları komşularınız Trakyalılar, İllyrialılar ve Triballialılardan uzak tutmak için başarısız döğüşler veriyordunuz. Postlar yerine giymeniz için size giysiler verdi; sizi dağlardan ovalara indirdi; size sınırlarınızda düşmanlarınızla eşit koşullarda döğüşmeyi öğretti, ta ki güvenliğinizin bir zamanlar olduğu gibi köylerinizin doğal gücünde değil, ama kendi yiğitliğinizde olduğunu anlayıncaya dek. Sizleri kentli yaptı; size iyi yasalar ve töreler getirerek sizi uygarlaştırdı. Sizi boyun eğdiğiniz kabilelere, sizi ve mallarınızı yağmalayan insanlara kul ve köle olmaktan kurtardı. Sizi onlara efendi yaptı. Trakya’nın büyük bölümünü Makedonya’ya kattı, kıyıdaki en iyi yerleri ele geçirerek ülkenizi tecime açtı, ve saldırı korkusu olmaksızın barış içinde madenlerinizi işletmenizi sağladı.1 Şimdiye dek size rahatsızlık vermiş ve sizi korkudan dehşete düşürmüş Thessaly’yi sizin egemenliğiniz altına getirdi ve Fokislileri küçük düşürerek Yunanistan’ın dar ve zorlu yolunu geniş ve kolay bir yola çevirdi.2 Bizi yıllardır devirmek için şanslarını kollayan Atina ve Thebes’i öylesine aşağılara düşürdü ki — bu sırada benim kendim de babamın emeklerini paylaşıyordum3 —, Atina’ya haraç ödemek ve Thebes’e boyun eğmek yerine,4 şimdi onların varolma haklarını kendi paylarına bizden kazanmaları gerekiyor. Peloponez’e geçerek, oradaki herşeyi düzene soktu ve Perslere karşı savaş için Yunanistan’ın geri kalanının yüksek komutanı yapıldığı zaman, bunun onurunu yalnızca kendi için değil, ama Makedonya halkı için kazandı.

“Babamın sizlere sunduğu tüm bu soylu hizmetler kendi başlarına görüldüklerinde gerçekten de büyüktürler. Gene de, benimkilerle karşılaştırıldıklarında küçüktürler. Babamdan birkaç altın ve gümüş kupa, ve hazinesindeki altmış talentlik parayı kalıt aldım. Ve Filip’in borçları beş yüz talent kadardı.5 Kendim bu yüke ek olarak sekiz yüz talentlik bir borç daha aldım ve size doğru dürüst bakamayacak denli yoksul bir ülkeden yürüyerek sizin için tek bir vuruşta, ve Perslerin deniz üstünlüğü karşısında, Hellespont’un kapılarını açtım. Süvarim Darius’un satraplarını ezdi, ve İyonya’yı, Aeolia’yı, aşağı ve yukarı Frigyaları ve Lydia’yı imparatorluğunuza kattım. Miletos’u kuşatma yoluyla dize getirdim. Öteki kentler tümü de kendi istekleriyle boyun eğdiler, onları aldım ve meyvalarını toplamanız için size verdim. Mısır ve Kyrene’nin tek bir damla kan akıtmadan kazandığım varsıllıkları şimdi sizin elinizdedir. Filistin ve Suriye’nin ovaları ve Nehirler arasındaki Ülke şimdi sizin mülkünüzdür. Babil ve Baktria ve Susa sizindir; Lydia’nın altınının, İran’ın hazinesinin, Hindistan’ın varsıllığının efendileri sizlersiniz — evet, ve Hindistan’ın ötesindeki denizin de. Sizler benim yüzbaşılarım, generallerim, valilerimsiniz.

“Sizin için tüm bu çabalarımdan bana geriye bu kaftandan ve bu taçtan başka ne kaldı? Kendim için hiçbirşey almadım. Hiç kimse sizin bu iyeliklerinizden ve gelecekte kullanmanız için saklanmakta olanlardan ayrı olarak benim hazinelerimi gösteremez. Çünkü sizin yediğiniz aynı yemeği yediğime, sizin uyuduğunuz aynı uykuyu uyuduğuma göre, niçin kendime birşeyler ayırayım? Oh, gene de aranızda kendilerine ziyafetler çeken kimileriyle aynı yemeği yediğimi sanmıyorum. Ve dahası, yataklarınızda rahat uyumanız için sizden önce uyandığımı biliyorum.1

10. “Belki de diyeceksiniz ki, komutanınız olduğum için, kazandığımı benim adıma kazanmak için katlanmak zorunda kaldığınız zahmetlerin ve sıkıntıların hiç birini çekmedim. Ama aranızda benim için benim onun için çektiğimden daha çok acı çektiğini duyumsayan var mı? Haydi, eğer yaralandıysanız, soyunun ve yaralarınızı gösterin, ve ben de göstereceğim. Bedenimde sırtımdan başka yara izi taşımayan hiçbir yerim kalmadı. Yakın döğüşte kullanılan ya da uzaktan fırlatılan hiç bir silah yoktur ki, izini taşımıyor olayım. Göğüs göğüse döğüşte kılıçla yaralandım. Oklarla delindim. Mancınıktan gelen taşlar bedenimi ezdi. Birçok kez sapan taşlarının ve sopa vuruşlarının hedefi oldum. Ve tümü de sizin şanınız, sizin gönenciniz için.2 Her toprakta, her denizde, her nehirde, dağda ve ovada utkulu bir ordu olarak size dünyanın sonuna dek önderlik ettim. Sizin evlendiğiniz gibi evlendim, ve birçoklarınızın benim çocuklarımla kan bağı olan çocukları olacak. Kimilerinizin borçları vardı, ve bunların nasıl oluştuğuna burnumu sokmadan, ve iyi maaşlar almanıza ve kuşatma sonrası yağmalardan paylarınıza düşenlere bakmadan, onları ödedim. Çoğunuza sizin yürekliliğinizin ve benim saygımın hiçbir zaman yok olmayacak anıları olarak altın halkalar verdim.3 Ve savaşta kim öldüyse, ölümü şanlı ve cenaze törenleri görkemli oldu. Hemen hemen tümünün anısına yurtlarında bronz yontular dikildi. Anne ve babaları saygı görüyor ve tüm hizmetlerden ve vergilerden bağışık tutuldular.4 Çünkü benim önderliğim altında, aranızda tek bir adam bile düşmana sırtı dönük ölmedi. “Ve şimdi bundan böyle seferler için uygun olmayanları geri göndermeye karar vermiştim — ülkedeki herkesin haset ve hayranlığı için.

Ama hepiniz beni bırakmak istediğinize göre, öyleyse hepiniz gidin! Ve yurdunuza ulaştığınızda, onlara Persleri ve Medleri, Baktrialıları ve Sakaları yenen, Uxialıları, Arakhotialıları, Drangialıları ezen, Parthia’yı, Khorasmia’yı, Kaspian Denizi’ne dek Hyrkania’yı imparatorluğuna katan, Kaspian Kapılarının ötesinde Kafkasları geçen, Oxus ve Tanais nehirlerini geçen, evet, ondan önce Dionysos’tan başka hiç kimsenin geçmediği İndus’u ve ayrıca Hydaspes’i, Akesines’i ve Hydraotes’i geçen, ve eğer korkmamış olsaydınız Hyfasis’i de geçecek olan, İndus’un iki ağzından Hint Okyanusu’na açılan ve daha önce hiçbir ordunun ayak basmadığı Gedrosia Çölünü aşan, yürüyüş hattındaki Karmania’yı ve Oreitanların ülkesini ele geçiren, gemileri okyanusta Hindistan’dan Pers Körfezi’ne yelken açtıkları zaman sizin tarafınızdan Susa’ya geri getirilen — tüm bunları yapan Kralınız İskender’i terk ettiğinizi ve onu yenmiş olduğunuz barbar kabilelerin eline bıraktığınızı söyleyin. Böyle haberler emin olun ki size bu dünyada şan ve gökte ödüller kazandıracaktır. Çekilin gözümün önünden!”

ARRİAN
İSKENDER’İN SEFERLERİ
İdea Yayınevi

 



 



 



Last years in Persia

Last years in Persia (W)

 

Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.

After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet for several thousand of his men at which he and they ate together. In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year. Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them. Alexander admired Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon's Cyropaedia, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator. During his visit to Pasargadae Alexander ordered his architect Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus' tomb.

Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend and possible lover, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning. Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander, and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon, as well as a decree for public mourning. Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly after Hephaestion.

 



 
Death and succession (W)

Death and succession

Death and succession (W)

On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32. There are two different versions of Alexander's death and details of the death differ slightly in each. Plutarch’s account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus, and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa. He developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them. In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles, followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever and died after some agony. Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.

Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination, foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication, while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness. The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence, and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas, Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer. There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.

The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available. However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander. In a 2014 manuscript in the journal Clinical Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the Alexander Romance. Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, Veratrum album offers the most plausible cause. Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-day Mavroneri in Arcadia, Greece) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria.

Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, including malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis. Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) spondylitis or meningitis. Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute pancreatitis and West Nile virus. Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may also have contributed to his declining health.

 



After death

After death (W)

Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket. According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever". Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative.

19th century depiction of Alexander's funeral procession based on the description of Diodorus

While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis. His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least late Antiquity. Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage. The recent discovery of an enormous tomb in northern Greece, at Amphipolis, dating from the time of Alexander the Great was given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege.

Detail of Alexander on the Alexander Sarcophagus

Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. Caligula was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, Caracalla, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.

The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus", discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle of Issus in 331. However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus' death.

 

 



Division of the empire

Division of the empire (W)

 

Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death. According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the strongest". Another theory is that his successors willfully or erroneously misheard "tôi Kraterôi"—"to Craterus", the general leading his Macedonian troops home and newly entrusted with the regency of Macedonia.

Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story. Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him.

Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only.

Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between "The Successors" (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocs: Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Mesopotamia and Central Asia, Attalid Anatolia, and Antigonid Macedon. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.

 



Will

Will (W)

Diodorus stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death. Craterus started to carry out Alexander's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant. Nevertheless, Perdiccas read Alexander's will to his troops.

Alexander's will called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included:

  • Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the pyramids of Egypt"
  • Erection of great temples in Delos, Delphi, Dodona, Dium, Amphipolis, and a monumental temple to Athena at Troy
  • Conquest of Arabia and the entire Mediterranean basin
  • Circumnavigation of Africa
  • Development of cities and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties"

 



 
Character (W)

Generalship

Generalship (W)

Alexander earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. This was due to use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops. The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and maneuverability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces. Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle, in the manner of a Macedonian king.

In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000. Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.

At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through. Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army. At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius' center, causing the latter to flee once again.

When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center. In India, confronted by Porus' elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers.

 



Physical appearance

Physical appearance (W)

 

Greek biographer Plutarch (c.  45 – c. 120 AD) describes Alexander's appearance as:

“The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus.

Greek historian Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' c.  86 – c. 160 AD) described Alexander as:

“[T]he strong, handsome commander with one eye dark as the night and one blue as the sky.”

The semi-legendary Alexander Romance also suggests that Alexander exhibited heterochromia iridum: that one eye was dark and the other light.

British historian Peter Green provided a description of Alexander's appearance, based on his review of statues and some ancient documents:

“Physically, Alexander was not prepossessing. Even by Macedonian standards he was very short, though stocky and tough. His beard was scanty, and he stood out against his hirsute Macedonian barons by going clean-shaven. His neck was in some way twisted, so that he appeared to be gazing upward at an angle. His eyes (one blue, one brown) revealed a dewy, feminine quality. He had a high complexion and a harsh voice.”

Historian and Egyptologist Joann Fletcher has said that the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great had blond hair.

Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image. Lysippos had often used the contrapposto sculptural scheme to portray Alexander and other characters such as Apoxyomenos, Hermes and Eros. Lysippos' sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.

 



Personality

Personality (W)

 

Some of Alexander's strongest personality traits formed in response to his parents. His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. Olympias' influence instilled a sense of destiny in him, and Plutarch tells how his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years". However, his father Philip was Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds. Alexander's relationship with his father forged the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to outdo his father, illustrated by his reckless behaviour in battle. While Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world", he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions.

According to Plutarch, among Alexander's traits were a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature, which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions. Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate. He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader. This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn. His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general. He had great self-restraint in "pleasures of the body", in contrast with his lack of self-control with alcohol.

Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences. However, he had little interest in sports or the Olympic games (unlike his father), seeking only the Homeric ideals of honour (timê) and glory (kudos). He had great charisma and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader. His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death—only Alexander had the ability to do so.

During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia. His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect. His delusions of grandeur are readily visible in his will and in his desire to conquer the world, in as much as he is by various sources described as having boundless ambition, an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into an historical cliché.

He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself. Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus, a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa. He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon. Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably proskynesis, a practice of which Macedonians disapproved, and were loath to perform. This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen. However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine. Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together.

 



Personal relationships

Personal relationships (W)

Alexander married three times: Roxana, daughter of the Sogdian nobleman Oxyartes of Bactria, out of love; and the Persian princesses Stateira II and Parysatis II, the former a daughter of Darius III and latter a daughter of Artaxerxes III, for political reasons. He apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon by Roxana and, possibly, Heracles of Macedon from his mistress Barsine. He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.

Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble. Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander. This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached mental state during his final months.

Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy in modern times. The Roman era writer Athenaeus says, based on the scholar Dicaearchus, who was Alexander's contemporary, that the king "was quite excessively keen on boys", and that Alexander sexually embraced his eunuch Bagoas in public. This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. None of Alexander's contemporaries, however, are known to have explicitly described Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion as sexual, though the pair was often compared to Achilles and Patroclus, whom classical Greek culture painted as a couple. Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles." Some modern historians (e.g., Robin Lane Fox) believe not only that Alexander's youthful relationship with Hephaestion was sexual, but that their sexual contacts may have continued into adulthood, which went against the social norms of at least some Greek cities, such as Athens, though some modern researchers have tentatively proposed that Macedonia (or at least the Macedonian court) may have been more tolerant of homosexuality between adults.

Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life. However, Ogden calculates that Alexander, who impregnated his partners thrice in eight years, had a higher matrimonial record than his father at the same age. Two of these pregnancies — Stateira's and Barsine's — are of dubious legitimacy.

According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body". Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her. Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius' mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.

 



 
Legacy (W)

Legacy

Legacy (W)

 

Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence. Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.

 



Hellenistic kingdoms

Hellenistic kingdoms (W)

Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi), and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period.

The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime. However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the Maurya Empire. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire.

 



Founding of cities

Founding of cities (W)


Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris. The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities. The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons. Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece. However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.

 



Funding of temples

Funding of temples (W)

In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of Athena Polias in Priene. An inscription from the temple, now housed in the British Museum, declares: "King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias." This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life. The temple was designed by Pytheos, one of the architects of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.

 



Hellenization

Hellenization (W)

Hellenization was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest. That this export took place is undoubted, and can be seen in the great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, Alexandria, Antioch and Seleucia (south of modern Baghdad). Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture. This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. However, his successors explicitly rejected such policies. Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states.

The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially Athenian. The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect. Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek. Furthermore, town planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.

Hellenization in Central Asia and India

Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–125 BC) (in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan) and the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India. On the Silk Road trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridized with Iranian and Buddhist cultures. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of Gandhara (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are the Edicts of Ashoka, which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world. The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism influenced the development of Buddhism and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka and Hellenistic Asia and Europe (Greco-Buddhist monasticism).

Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time, perhaps modeled on Greek statues of Apollo in the Greco-Buddhist style. Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes, and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practiced by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'. The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west. For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in modern-day Afghanistan, while the Greek concept of a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower. The Yavanajataka (lit. Greek astronomical treatise) and Paulisa Siddhanta texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy.

Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was far-ranging. In the area of architecture, a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as Patna, especially with the Pataliputra capital, dated to the 3rd century BC. The Corinthian order is also heavily represented in the art of Gandhara, especially through Indo-Corinthian capitals.

 



Influence on Rome

Influence on Rome (W)

 

Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. Polybius began his Histories by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness. Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while Octavian visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander's profile. The emperor Trajan also admired Alexander, as did Nero and Caracalla. The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewelry, or embroidered into their clothes.

On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by republican values. Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as amicita (friendship) and clementia (clemency), but also iracundia (anger) and cupiditas gloriae (over-desire for glory).

Emperor Julian in his satire called "The Caesars", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods.

 



Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal through the isthmus

Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal through the isthmus (W)

Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal through the isthmus

Pausanias writes that Alexander wanted to dig the Mimas mountain (today at the Karaburun area), but he didn't succeed. He also mentions that this was the only unsuccessful project of Alexander. In addition, Pliny the Elder writes about this unsuccessful plan adding that the distance was 12 kilometres (7 1⁄2 mi), and the purpose was to cut a canal through the isthmus, so as to connect the Caystrian and Hermaean bays.

 

 



Naming of the Icarus island in the Persian Gulf

Naming of the Icarus island in the Persian Gulf (W)

 

Arrian wrote that Aristobulus said that the Icarus island (modern Failaka Island) in the Persian Gulf had this name because Alexander ordered the island to be named like this, after the Icarus island in the Aegean Sea.

 



Legend

Legend (W)

Legend

Legendary accounts surround the life of Alexander the Great, many deriving from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself. His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, another participant, Onesicritus, invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time."

In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the Alexander Romance, later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages, containing many dubious stories, and was translated into numerous languages.

 



In ancient and modern culture

In ancient and modern culture (W)

Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek.

Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient figure. The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the Karagiozis shadow play. One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain "Is King Alexander alive?" The correct answer is "He is alive and well and rules the world!" causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard.

In pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet gujastak, meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. In Sunni Islamic Persia, under the influence of the Alexander Romance (in Persian: اسکندرنامهIskandarnamah), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges. Firdausi's Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian shahs, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth. Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in search of immortality.

The figure of Dhul-Qarnayn (literally "the Two-Horned One") mentioned in the Quran is believed by scholars to be based on later legends of Alexander. In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of Gog and Magog. He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet.

The Syriac version of the Alexander Romance portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God". In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of Nectanebo II, the last pharaoh before the Persian conquest. His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, "proving" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian.

According to Josephus, Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem.

In Hindi and Urdu, the name "Sikandar", derived from the Persian name for Alexander, denotes a rising young talent, and the Delhi Sultanate ruler Aladdin Khajli stylized himself as "Sikandar-i-Sani" (the Second Alexander the Great). In medieval India, Turkic and Afghan sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured region of Central Asia brought positive cultural connotations of Alexander to the Indian subcontinent, resulting in the efflorescence of Sikandernameh (Alexander Romances) written by Indo-Persian poets such as Amir Khusrow and the prominence of Alexander the Great as a popular subject in Mughal-era Persian miniatures. In medieval Europe, Alexander the Great was revered as a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities of chivalry.

In Greek Anthology there are poems referring to Alexander.

Irish playwright Aubrey Thomas de Vere wrote Alexander the Great, a Dramatic Poem.

In popular culture, the British heavy metal band Iron Maiden included a song titled "Alexander the Great" on their 1986 album Somewhere in Time. Written by bass player Steve Harris, the song retells Alexander's life.

 



 
Historiography (W)

Historiography

Historiography (W)

 

Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost. Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these original sources have survived. The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally Justin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century. Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus.

 



 




📹📹📹 RISE OF MACEDON (VİDEO — BazBattles)

Rise of Macedon (BazBattles)

📹 The Battle of Issus 333 BC (VİDEO)

📹 The Battle of Issus 333 BC (LINK)

Short animation covering details of one of the greates victories of Alexander the Great. Near the ancient town of Issus Macedonian army encountered forces led by Darius III Codomannus, the King of Persian Empire. Thanks to this victory, Alexander was able to expand his Kingdom eastwards and cross into Syria.

 



📹 The Siege of Tyre 332 BC (VİDEO)

📹 The Siege of Tyre 332 BC (LINK)

Episode covers the siege of formidable city of Tyre, most important city-state of Phoenicia was the last Persian stronghold still under their control. Unlike other Phoenician cities, Tyrians decided to challenge the young Macedonian king and prepared for a long and bitter siege.

 



📹 Alexander the Great — Battle of Gaugamela 331 BC (VİDEO)

📹 Alexander the Great — Battle of Gaugamela 331 BC (LINK)

Decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Persian Empire led by Darius Codomannus, near the village of Gaugamela.

 



📹 Alexander the Great — Battle of the Persian Gate 330 BC (VİDEO)

📹 Alexander the Great — Battle of the Persian Gate 330 BC (LINK)

Alexander the Great marches towards his ultimate goal, city of Persepolis. The power of Achaemenid empire is crippled, yet the dangerous mountainous terrain ahead posed a serious threat to the Macedonians.

 



📹 Alexander the Great — Battle of the Hydaspes 326 BC (VİDEO)

📹 Alexander the Great — Battle of the Hydaspes 326 BC (LINK)

 



📹 Alexander the Great — Mallian Campaign 326 BC (VİDEO)

📹 Alexander the Great — Mallian Campaign 326 BC (LINK)

Alexander's campaign in India after the Battle of the Hydaspes and his journey back to Babylonia.

 



 



📹📹📹 Alexander the Great (VIDEO / Epic History TV) (VİDEO)

Alexander the Great (VIDEO / Epic History TV)

📹 Alexander the Great — 1 (VİDEO)

Alexander the Great — 1 (LINK)

The incredible story of Alexander the Great and his conquest of the known world is brought to life with animated maps, images from Osprey Publishing and Total War game footage. In Part 1, we look at the background: Persia's invasion of Greece in 480 BC, the rise of Macedonia under King Philip II, and the formation of the Hellenic League. Following Philip's assassination, his 20 year old son Alexander inherited the kingdom and a formidable army. In 334 BC he used this army to launch a invasion of the Persian Empire, winning a crucial victory at the River Granicus.

 



📹 Alexander the Great — 2 (VİDEO)

Alexander the Great — 2 (LINK)

Alexander the Great's astonishing military campaign against the Persian Empire is brought to life with animated maps, images from Osprey Publishing and Total War game footage. In Part 2, Alexander cuts the Gordian Knot, then defeats the army of Darius III at the Battle of Issus. He goes on to conquer the island-city of Tyre in a brutal siege, and seizes control of the rich and ancient land of Egypt, where he is recognised as the new pharaoh. He founds a new city at Alexandria, and at the oracle of Siwah, he is welcomed as son of Amun - king of the gods. King Agis of Sparta leads a rebellion against Macedonian rule back in Greece, but is crushed by Antipater, leaving Alexander free to continue his advance into the heartlands of Persia...

 



📹 Alexander the Great — 3 (VİDEO)

Alexander the Great — 3 (LINK)

Alexander the Great has subjugated the Persian Empire west of the Euphrates, winning battles at the Granicus and Issus, capturing the city of Tyre and seizing control of Egypt. Now he heads east for a final showdown with Darius III, King of Kings, at Gaugamela. The great clash there will determine the fate of two empires, and win Alexander everlasting glory. But in the wake of victory, he faces the challenge of ruling over his new, sprawling empire, and dealing with usurpers and rebellion.

 



📹 Alexander the Great — 4 (VİDEO)

Alexander the Great — 4 (LINK)

Alexander the Great has defeated King Darius at the Battle of Gaugamela, and now pursues the Persian usurper Bessus east into modern Afghanistan. He will face revolt, guerilla war and Scythian nomads, but finally he reaches the furthest point of the Persian Empire. He marries Roxana, daughter of a Bactrian lord, then continues his advance into modern Pakistan and India, where he clashes with King Porus of Pauravas at the Battle of the Hydaspes...

 



 




📹 Alexander the Great — Logistics (VİDEO)

Alexander the Great — Logistics (LINK)

In this video, we will explain how the armies of Alexander the Great and Philip traveled and were supplied.

 



📹 Alexander — Mutiny at Opis (VİDEO)

Alexander — Mutiny at Opis (LINK)

 

İskender’in Konuşması (ARİAN tarafından)

İskender’in Konuşması (ARİAN)

8. Opis’e ulaşınca, Makedonyalı askerlerini topladı ve yaşları ya da sakatlıkları nedeniyle daha öte hizmet için uygun olmayan tüm adamların ordudan çıkarıldığını bildirdi. Onları ülkelerine gönderdi. Yola çıkarken her birine dostlarını ve akrabalarını kıskandıracak ve geri kalan Makedonyalıları gelecekte onların emeklerini ve tehlikelerini paylaşmak için heyecanlandıracak şeyler için söz verdi. İskendonatımıylader kendi payına bu sözlerle hiç kuşkusuz adamlarını hoşnut etmeyi amaçlıyordu. Makedonyalılar ise daha şimdiden hizmetlerini küçümsediğini ve onları bir savaş için bütünüyle yararsız gördüğünü duyumsadılar. Böylece, bütünüyle doğal olarak, sözlerini yalnızca bütün sefer boyunca duygularını incitmek için yaptıklarının — örneğin Pers giysilerini benimsemesi, Doğulu “Ardıllar”ın Makedonya kuşandırılması, ve Yoldaşlar süvarisine yabancı askerlerin katılması gibi — bir başka örneği olarak gördüler ve içerlediler. Sonuçta konuşmayı saygılı bir sessizlik içinde dinlemek yerine, kendilerini tutamayarak, ordudaki herkesin çıkarılmasını istediler ve acı bir şaka olarak sonraki seferinde yanına babasını alabileceğini eklediler — ki, görünürde tanrı Ammon’u demek istiyorlardı.

İskender bunları işitince çok kızdı. O sıralar saygısızlığa fazla alınır olmuştu, ve alıştığı Doğulu boyun eğme tutumu Makedonyalılara karşı eski açık yürekli tutumunu büyük ölçüde değiştirmişti. Çevresindeki subaylar ile platformdan sıçradı, parmağı ile kalabalığı karıştırmış olanların en önünde olanları göstererek muhafızlardan onları tutuklamalarını istedi. Bunlar on üç kişiydi, ve tümünün idam edilmeleri buyruğunu verdi.1 Ürkütücü bir sessizlik oldu. İskender bir kez daha kürsüye çıkarak askerlerine seslendi.


9. “Makedonyalılar, şimdi duyduğunuz yurt özleminizi durdurma gibi bir amaçla konuşmayacağım. Nereye isterseniz gidin, sizi engellemeyeceğim. Ama bilin ki, eğer böyle gidecek olursanız, bir şeyi anlamanızı istiyorum — bize nasıl davrandığınızı, ve bizim size nasıl davrandığımızı. Öyleyse size ilkin babam Filip’ten söz edeceğim, çünkü bunu yapmam gerekiyor. Filip sizleri başı boş dolaşan yoksul bir kabile olarak buldu. Çoğunuz postlar giyiyor, dağ yamaçlarında birkaç koyun otlatıyor ve onları komşularınız Trakyalılar, İllyrialılar ve Triballialılardan uzak tutmak için başarısız döğüşler veriyordunuz. Postlar yerine giymeniz için size giysiler verdi; sizi dağlardan ovalara indirdi; size sınırlarınızda düşmanlarınızla eşit koşullarda döğüşmeyi öğretti, ta ki güvenliğinizin bir zamanlar olduğu gibi köylerinizin doğal gücünde değil, ama kendi yiğitliğinizde olduğunu anlayıncaya dek. Sizleri kentli yaptı; size iyi yasalar ve töreler getirerek sizi uygarlaştırdı. Sizi boyun eğdiğiniz kabilelere, sizi ve mallarınızı yağmalayan insanlara kul ve köle olmaktan kurtardı. Sizi onlara efendi yaptı. Trakya’nın büyük bölümünü Makedonya’ya kattı, kıyıdaki en iyi yerleri ele geçirerek ülkenizi tecime açtı, ve saldırı korkusu olmaksızın barış içinde madenlerinizi işletmenizi sağladı.1 Şimdiye dek size rahatsızlık vermiş ve sizi korkudan dehşete düşürmüş Thessaly’yi sizin egemenliğiniz altına getirdi ve Fokislileri küçük düşürerek Yunanistan’ın dar ve zorlu yolunu geniş ve kolay bir yola çevirdi.2 Bizi yıllardır devirmek için şanslarını kollayan Atina ve Thebes’i öylesine aşağılara düşürdü ki — bu sırada benim kendim de babamın emeklerini paylaşıyordum3 —, Atina’ya haraç ödemek ve Thebes’e boyun eğmek yerine,4 şimdi onların varolma haklarını kendi paylarına bizden kazanmaları gerekiyor. Peloponez’e geçerek, oradaki herşeyi düzene soktu ve Perslere karşı savaş için Yunanistan’ın geri kalanının yüksek komutanı yapıldığı zaman, bunun onurunu yalnızca kendi için değil, ama Makedonya halkı için kazandı.

“Babamın sizlere sunduğu tüm bu soylu hizmetler kendi başlarına görüldüklerinde gerçekten de büyüktürler. Gene de, benimkilerle karşılaştırıldıklarında küçüktürler. Babamdan birkaç altın ve gümüş kupa, ve hazinesindeki altmış talentlik parayı kalıt aldım. Ve Filip’in borçları beş yüz talent kadardı.5 Kendim bu yüke ek olarak sekiz yüz talentlik bir borç daha aldım ve size doğru dürüst bakamayacak denli yoksul bir ülkeden yürüyerek sizin için tek bir vuruşta, ve Perslerin deniz üstünlüğü karşısında, Hellespont’un kapılarını açtım. Süvarim Darius’un satraplarını ezdi, ve İyonya’yı, Aeolia’yı, aşağı ve yukarı Frigyaları ve Lydia’yı imparatorluğunuza kattım. Miletos’u kuşatma yoluyla dize getirdim. Öteki kentler tümü de kendi istekleriyle boyun eğdiler, onları aldım ve meyvalarını toplamanız için size verdim. Mısır ve Kyrene’nin tek bir damla kan akıtmadan kazandığım varsıllıkları şimdi sizin elinizdedir. Filistin ve Suriye’nin ovaları ve Nehirler arasındaki Ülke şimdi sizin mülkünüzdür. Babil ve Baktria ve Susa sizindir; Lydia’nın altınının, İran’ın hazinesinin, Hindistan’ın varsıllığının efendileri sizlersiniz — evet, ve Hindistan’ın ötesindeki denizin de. Sizler benim yüzbaşılarım, generallerim, valilerimsiniz.

“Sizin için tüm bu çabalarımdan bana geriye bu kaftandan ve bu taçtan başka ne kaldı? Kendim için hiçbirşey almadım. Hiç kimse sizin bu iyeliklerinizden ve gelecekte kullanmanız için saklanmakta olanlardan ayrı olarak benim hazinelerimi gösteremez. Çünkü sizin yediğiniz aynı yemeği yediğime, sizin uyuduğunuz aynı uykuyu uyuduğuma göre, niçin kendime birşeyler ayırayım? Oh, gene de aranızda kendilerine ziyafetler çeken kimileriyle aynı yemeği yediğimi sanmıyorum. Ve dahası, yataklarınızda rahat uyumanız için sizden önce uyandığımı biliyorum.1

10. “Belki de diyeceksiniz ki, komutanınız olduğum için, kazandığımı benim adıma kazanmak için katlanmak zorunda kaldığınız zahmetlerin ve sıkıntıların hiç birini çekmedim. Ama aranızda benim için benim onun için çektiğimden daha çok acı çektiğini duyumsayan var mı? Haydi, eğer yaralandıysanız, soyunun ve yaralarınızı gösterin, ve ben de göstereceğim. Bedenimde sırtımdan başka yara izi taşımayan hiçbir yerim kalmadı. Yakın döğüşte kullanılan ya da uzaktan fırlatılan hiç bir silah yoktur ki, izini taşımıyor olayım. Göğüs göğüse döğüşte kılıçla yaralandım. Oklarla delindim. Mancınıktan gelen taşlar bedenimi ezdi. Birçok kez sapan taşlarının ve sopa vuruşlarının hedefi oldum. Ve tümü de sizin şanınız, sizin gönenciniz için.2 Her toprakta, her denizde, her nehirde, dağda ve ovada utkulu bir ordu olarak size dünyanın sonuna dek önderlik ettim. Sizin evlendiğiniz gibi evlendim, ve birçoklarınızın benim çocuklarımla kan bağı olan çocukları olacak. Kimilerinizin borçları vardı, ve bunların nasıl oluştuğuna burnumu sokmadan, ve iyi maaşlar almanıza ve kuşatma sonrası yağmalardan paylarınıza düşenlere bakmadan, onları ödedim. Çoğunuza sizin yürekliliğinizin ve benim saygımın hiçbir zaman yok olmayacak anıları olarak altın halkalar verdim.3 Ve savaşta kim öldüyse, ölümü şanlı ve cenaze törenleri görkemli oldu. Hemen hemen tümünün anısına yurtlarında bronz yontular dikildi. Anne ve babaları saygı görüyor ve tüm hizmetlerden ve vergilerden bağışık tutuldular.4 Çünkü benim önderliğim altında, aranızda tek bir adam bile düşmana sırtı dönük ölmedi. “Ve şimdi bundan böyle seferler için uygun olmayanları geri göndermeye karar vermiştim — ülkedeki herkesin haset ve hayranlığı için.

Ama hepiniz beni bırakmak istediğinize göre, öyleyse hepiniz gidin! Ve yurdunuza ulaştığınızda, onlara Persleri ve Medleri, Baktrialıları ve Sakaları yenen, Uxialıları, Arakhotialıları, Drangialıları ezen, Parthia’yı, Khorasmia’yı, Kaspian Denizi’ne dek Hyrkania’yı imparatorluğuna katan, Kaspian Kapılarının ötesinde Kafkasları geçen, Oxus ve Tanais nehirlerini geçen, evet, ondan önce Dionysos’tan başka hiç kimsenin geçmediği İndus’u ve ayrıca Hydaspes’i, Akesines’i ve Hydraotes’i geçen, ve eğer korkmamış olsaydınız Hyfasis’i de geçecek olan, İndus’un iki ağzından Hint Okyanusu’na açılan ve daha önce hiçbir ordunun ayak basmadığı Gedrosia Çölünü aşan, yürüyüş hattındaki Karmania’yı ve Oreitanların ülkesini ele geçiren, gemileri okyanusta Hindistan’dan Pers Körfezi’ne yelken açtıkları zaman sizin tarafınızdan Susa’ya geri getirilen — tüm bunları yapan Kralınız İskender’i terk ettiğinizi ve onu yenmiş olduğunuz barbar kabilelerin eline bıraktığınızı söyleyin. Böyle haberler emin olun ki size bu dünyada şan ve gökte ödüller kazandıracaktır. Çekilin gözümün önünden!”


ARRİAN
İSKENDER’İN SEFERLERİ
İdea Yayınevi

 



 




📹📹📹 Greco Persian Wars to the Conquest of Persia (Khan Academy)

Greco Persian Wars to the Conquest of Persia (Khan Academy)

📹 Beginning of the Greco Persian Wars — Khan Academy (VİDEO)

📹 Beginning of the Greco Persian Wars — Khan Academy (LINK)

What were the Greco Persian wars and how did they start? Sal explains.

 



📹 Second Persian Invasion — Khan Academy (VİDEO)

📹 Second Persian Invasion — Khan Academy (LINK)

Xerxes launches an attack on Greece by land and by sea, culminating in the Battle of Thermopylae.

 



📹 Philip of Macedon unifies Greece — Khan Academy (VİDEO)

📹 Philip of Macedon unifies Greece — Khan Academy (LINK)

How did Philip of Macedon unify Greece? Sal discusses his rise to power, the League of Corinth, and the rise of Alexander the Great.

 



📹 Alexander the Great takes power — Khan Academy (VİDEO)

📹 Alexander the Great takes power — Khan Academy (LINK)

Alexander the Great takes power

 



📹 Alexander the Great conquers Persia — Khan Academy (VİDEO)

📹 Alexander the Great conquers Persia — Khan Academy (LINK)

How did Alexander the Great take over Persia? Sal explains.

 



 








  Alexander’s Empire and his Route

Map of Alexander’s Empire and his Route (W)

🔎

Maps of campaigns (W)


Ionia 336 BC

Media and Egypt 333 BC

Persia 331 BC

India 326 BC





  Chronology of Alexander’s Reign

🕑 Chronology of Alexander’s Reign

Chronology of Alexander’s Reign (L)

Alexander the Great (*356; r. 336-323): the Macedonian king who defeated his Persian colleague Darius III Codomannus and conquered the Achaemenid Empire. During his campaigns, Alexander visited a.o. Egypt, Babylonia, Persis, Media, Bactria, the Punjab, and the valley of the Indus. In the second half of his reign, he had to find a way to rule his newly conquered countries. Therefore, he made Babylon his capital and introduced the oriental court ceremonial, which caused great tensions with his Macedonian and Greek officers.

Chronology of Alexander’s reign (Livius.org)

 

336
Spring Parmenion leads vanguard into Asia
Summer Murder of Artaxerxes IV; accession of Darius III
October Murder of Philip (text); accession of Alexander
Nov-Dec. Alexander gains support of the Greek towns
335
Summer Alexander campaigns in the Balkans
Memnon's counterattack in Asia
12? Sept. Fall of Thebes (text)
Nov-Dec. Festivals at Dion and Aegae
334
May Alexander lands in Asia
Early June Battle of the Granicus river (text)
July Capture of Miletus
August Start of the siege of Halicarnassus
333
Winter Alexander conquers Caria, Lycia, Pamphylia and Phrygia
March-June Naval offensive of Memnon
April-July Alexander in Gordium (text)
July Death of Memnon
Late July Alexander leaves Gordium
Darius leaves Babylon
July-Sept Pharnabazus continues the naval offensive
September Alexander in Cilicia and falls ill (text)
October Parmenion sent to the Syrian gates
Alexander campaigns in West-Cilicia
c.5 Nov. Battle of Issus (text)
Dec.? Darius opens negotiations (text)
332
January Beginning of the siege of Tyre
Spring Disintegration of Persian fleet
July Fall of Tyre (text)
Sept-Nov. Siege of Gaza (text)
November Alexander visits Jerusalem? (text)
Alexander enters Egypt
331 January Alexander in Heliopolis and Memphis
March Alexander visits the oracle of Ammon (text)
7 April Alexander founds Alexandria (text)
June Alexander in Phoenicia and Syria
July Reinforcements leave Macedonia
Alexander's crosses the Euphrates
Aug-Sept. Alexander campaigns in Mesopotamia
1 Oct. Battle of Gaugamela
22 Oct. Mazaeus surrenders Babylon to Alexander (Babylonian text; Latin text)
15 Dec. Abulites surrenders Susa to Alexander
22 Dec. Alexander leaves Susa
330 20 Jan. Battle of the Persian gate
30 Jan. Alexander reaches Persepolis
Jan-May Alexander at Persepolis (text)
June Darius leaves Ecbatana
c.17 July Death of Darius III at Choara; Bessus king (text)
Aug-Sept. Alexander in Hyrcania, Parthia and Aria
November Alexander in Drangiana; plot of Philotas
Alexander in Ariaspa; assassination of Parmenion
329 February Armies unite in Arachosia
April Alexander advances to Gandara
Late May Alexander crosses the Hindu Kush (text)
c. 1 June Alexander advances to the Oxus (text)
Alexander captures Bessus
Alexander advances to the Jaxartes
July Alexander founds Alexandria Eschatê
Revolt in Sogdia, led by Spitamenes; battle of the Jaxartes
Cavalry reorganized
328
Winter Alexander in Bactra
Summer Campaigns in Sogdia and Bactria
Autumn Murder of Clitus
December Capture of Spitamenes
327
Winter Alexander in Maracanda and Nautaca
Spring Capture of the Sogdian Rock (text)
Summer Armies unite at Bactra.
Introduction of proskynesis (text)
Marriage to Roxane
Late Summer Conspiracy of the pages; death of Callisthenes
326
February Hephaestion advances through Gandara to Indus
Alexander campaigns in the Swat valley
Alexander takes the Aornus rock
April Armies unite near the Indus; advance to Taxila
May Battle of the Hydaspes against Porus
c. 26 June Crossing of the Acesines
Late July Mutiny at the Hyphasis (text)
September Beginning of fleet building
November Alexander's fleet starts down the Hydaspes
325
January Campaign against the Mallians; Alexander wounded
February Disaster at the confluence of Acesines and Indus
April The Brahman rebellion
June Craterus starts for Carmania
c. 15 July Peithon's and other forces arrive at Patala
Late August Alexander starts for Carmania
15 Sept. Nearchus starts on his voyage (text)
Alexander in Gedrosia (text)
December Punishment of the satraps (text)
Alexander meets Craterus in Carmania
324
January Alexander meets Nearchus in Carmania
February Alexander in Pasargadae (text)
Death of Calanus (text)
March Alexander meets Nearchus in Susa
Marriages at Susa (text)
Summer Alexander's decree on the exiles (text)
August Mutiny at Opis (text)
Veterans set off with Craterus
October Alexander at Ecbatana
Late Oct. Death of Hephaestion
323 Winter Alexander requests divine honors
Alexander campaigns against the Cossaeans
April-May Alexander in Babylon
May Preparations for campaign to Arabia
11 June Alexander dies (Greek text; Babylonian text)


This page was created in 2004; last modified on 27 April 2019. (Livius.org)

 



🕑 Macedonian Empire 336-306 BCE

Macedonian Empire 336-306 BCE(W)

Portrait Title Name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes
Argead dynasty (336-306 BCE)
Alexander III of Macedon.jpg King Alexander the Great 356 BCE Son of Philip II of Macedonia 336-323 BCE 13 June 323 BCE King of Macedonia from 336 BCE as Alexander III
Macedonia, dinastia degli antigonidi, tetradracma di filippo III, 323-316 ac ca.JPG King Philip III c. 359 BCE Son of Philip II of Macedonia June 323-317 BCE 317 BCE Killed by Olympias
Alexandros IV Aigos Budge.png King Alexander IV Sept. 323 BCE Son of Alexander III Sept. 323-309 BCE 309 BCE King of Macedonia as Alexander IV until 309 BC. Killed by Cassander son of Antipater
Regent Perdiccas ? June 323-321 BCE 321 BCE Regent for Alexander IV & Philip III, Prince of Orestis
Regent Antipater 398 BCE Son of Iollas 321-319 BCE 319 BCE Regent for Alexander IV & Philip III
Regent Polyperchon 394 BCE Son of Simmias 319-316 BCE 303 BCE Regent for Alexander IV & Philip III. Exercised no actual power in Persia.
Kassander316BC.jpg Regent Cassander c. 350 Son of Antipater 316-309 BCE 297 BCE Regent for and murderer of Alexander IV. Exercised no actual power in Persia.

 








  🎨 Alexander in Art

🎨 Charles Le Brun — Entry of Alexander into Babylon

Charles Le Brun — Entry of Alexander into Babylon

"Entry of Alexander into Babylon", a 1665 painting by Charles LeBrun, depicts Alexander the Great's uncontested entry into the city of Babylon, envisioned with pre-existing Hellenistic architecture.

 



🎨 Alexander and Porus by Charles Le Brun (1673)

Alexander and Porus by Charles Le Brun (1673) (W)

Alexander and Porus by Charles Le Brun, painted 1673.

(W) Charles Le Brun (24 February 1619 - 12 February 1690) was a French painter, art theorist, interior decorator and a director of several art schools of his time. As court painter to Louis XIV, who declared him "the greatest French artist of all time", he was a dominant figure in 17th-century French art and much influenced by Nicolas Poussin.

 



🎨🎨🎨 Alexander in Art


Die Hochzeit Alexanders des Großen mit der Prinzessin Roxane. Um 1517 von Sodoma gestaltetes und von Francesco Primaticcio gemaltes Fresko in der Villa Farnesina, Rom.

Roxane

In the spring of 327, toward the end of his stay at Maracanda, Alexander married Roxane (Roshanak, “Beautiful Star”), the sixteen-year-old daughter of Oxyartes of Bactria. Where he frst met her is not known, but it was either afer he captured the Sogdian rock or the Rock of Chorienes (see above). He married her in Macedonian fashion, slicing a loaf of bread with his sword and sharing it with Oxyartes, but his men were unimpressed because they had wanted their king to take a Macedonian wife. Although Curtius claims that the “intermarriage of Persians and Macedonians would serve to consolidate his empire,” Alexander, as in everything he did, had a pragmatic reason for marrying Roxane: he needed Oxyartes’ help to ensure the passivity of Bactria and Sogdiana. Alexander was now intent on invading India, and so could not afford a revolt of Bactria to his rear. He believed Oxyartes, a Bactrian baron, would prevent any problems. Te marriage was thus a political one, reminiscent of those of his father Philip. (L)
 

Magnanimity of Alexander the Great (LINK).

Alexander the Great Crossing the Granicus River (LINK).

Alexander the Great Refuses to Take Water Cades (LINK).

Alexander the Great and Campaspa (LINK).


Alexander the Great and Roxana

Description

Rotari, Pietro. 1707-1762

Alexander the Great and Roxana

Italy, 1756

Russian collections have few large works by Rotari, who came to Russian in 1756 but worked mainly as a (highly successful) portrait artist. He was equally admired by three successive monarchs, Elizaveta Petrovna, Peter III and Catherine II. This canvas was executed for Ekaterina Alexeevna (the future Catherine II while she was still but the wife of the heir to the throne) for her palace at Oranienbaum. This episode from the history of Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) comes from Plutarch (Lives, Alexander, XLVII). During a siege of a fortress in Bactria, the eastern part of the Persian state of Darius III, Roxane - daughter of a Bactrian satrap or nobleman - was captured. In an effort to gain the support of the Persian aristocracy, Alexander married her. Rotari here shows Alexander's meeting with Roxane, who is surrounded by weeping slaves and stands modestly before the amazed military commander. Soft pale blue, pink and yellowish-brown tones form an elegant colour range, giving the Classical composition something of the elegance and lightness of the Rococo style.

 

 








  💣 Battle Record

💣 Battle record

Battle record (W)

Date War Action Opponent/s Type Country Rank Outcome
2 August 338 BC Rise of Macedon Battle of Chaeronea Thebans, Athenians Battle Greece Prince Victory

335 BC Balkan Campaign Battle of Mount Haemus Getae, Thracians Battle present-day Bulgaria King Victory

December 335 BC Balkan Campaign Siege of Pelium Illyrians Siege Greece King Victory

December 335 BC Balkan Campaign Battle of Thebes Thebans Battle Greece King Victory

May 334 BC Persian Campaign Battle of the Granicus Achaemenid Empire Battle present-day Turkey King Victory

334 BC Persian Campaign Siege of Miletus Achaemenid Empire, Milesians Siege present-day Turkey King Victory

334 BC Persian Campaign Siege of Halicarnassus Achaemenid Empire Siege present-day Turkey King Victory

5 November 333 BC Persian Campaign Battle of Issus Achaemenid Empire Battle present-day Turkey King Victory

January-July 332 BC Persian Campaign Siege of Tyre Achaemenid Empire, Tyrians Siege present-day Lebanon King Victory

October 332 BC Persian Campaign Siege of Gaza Achaemenid Empire Siege present-day Palestine King Victory

1 October 331 BC Persian Campaign Battle of Gaugamela Achaemenid Empire Battle present-day Iraq King Victory

December 331 BC Persian Campaign Battle of the Uxian Defile Uxians Battle present-day Iran King Victory

20 January 330 BC Persian Campaign Battle of the Persian Gate Achaemenid Empire Battle present-day Iran King Victory

329 BC Persian Campaign Siege of Cyropolis Sogdians Siege present-day Turkmenistan King Victory

October 329 BC Persian Campaign Battle of Jaxartes Scythians Battle present-day Uzbekistan King Victory

327 BC Persian Campaign Siege of the Sogdian Rock Sogdians Siege present-day Uzbekistan King Victory

May 327 - March 326 BC Indian Campaign Cophen Campaign Aspasians Expedition present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan King Victory

April 326 BC Indian Campaign Siege of Aornos Aśvaka Siege present-day Pakistan King Victory

May 326 BC Indian Campaign Battle of the Hydaspes Paurava Battle present-day Pakistan King Victory

November 326 - February 325 BC Indian Campaign Siege of Multan Malli Siege present-day Pakistan King Victory

 



Ancient Macedonian Soldiers

Ancient Macedonian Soldiers (W)



Ancient Macedonian
soldiers, arms, and armaments (from the tomb in Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki in Greece, 4th century BC),

 








  Helenistik Döneme Dek Orta-Doğu

Helenistik Döneme Dek Orta-Doğu

Helenistik Döneme Dek Orta-Doğu (TimeMaps)

3500 BC. The first civilizations in world history, those of Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, are emerging.
2500 BC. The civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia are now flourishing in the Middle East.
1500 BC. The powerful Bronze Age empires of Egypt, the Mitanni, the Hittites and Babylonia dominate the Middle East.
1000 BC. Invasions have devastated the old centres of civilization, but important new developments, such as the use of iron, the appearance of the alphabet.
500 BC. A succession of great empires - the Assyrian, the Babylonian, and now the Persian - have dominated the Middle East for the past few centuries.
200 BC. The conquests of Alexander the Great have reshaped the map of the Middle East, and Greek-speaking kingdoms, founded by Alexander's generals, now cover the region.
 

 








  Alexander Mosaic
Alexander Battle of Issus Mosaic
🔎


Alexander Mosaic

Alexander Mosaic (W)

The Alexander Mosaic is a Roman floor mosaic originally from the House of the Faun in Pompeii (an alleged imitation of Apelles' painting) that dates from circa 100 BC. It is typically dated in the second half of the century between 120 and 100 B.C. It depicts a battle between the armies of Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia and measures 2.72 by 5.13 metres (8 ft 11 in × 16 ft 10 in). This work of art is a combination of different artistic traditions such as Italic, Hellenistic, and Roman. The mosaic is considered “Roman” based on the broader context of its time and location in relation to the later Roman Republic. The original is preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. The mosaic is believed to be a copy of an early 3rd-century BC Hellenistic painting.

 



📹 Alexander Mosaic from the House of the Faun, Pompeii (VİDEO)

📹 Alexander Mosaic from the House of the Faun, Pompeii (LINK)

Alexander Mosaic, c. 100 B.C.E., Roman copy (Pompeii) of a lost Greek painting, c. 315 B.C.E., Hellenistic Period (Archaeological Museum, Naples). Speakers: Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker. Created by Beth Harris and Steven Zucker.

 



📹 The Alexander Mosaic (VİDEO)

📹 The Alexander Mosaic / Warwick Students (LINK)

Directed by Pip Lewis, produced by Victoria Borton, narrated by Richard Cordery and researched by Adam Copley.

 








  Alexander Sarcophagus
Alexander Sarcophagus / İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzesi
🔎


Alexander Sarcophagus

Alexander Sarcophagus (W)

The Alexander Sarcophagus is a late 4th century BC Hellenistic stone sarcophagus adorned with bas-relief carvings of Alexander the Great, from the necropolis near Sidon, Lebanon. The work is remarkably well preserved and has been celebrated for its high aesthetic achievement. It is considered the outstanding holding of the Istanbul Archaeology Museum.


Discovery and interpretation



The 1887 discovery of the Alexander Sarcophagus.
 
   

The Alexander Sarcophagus is one of four massive carved sarcophagi, forming two pairs, that were discovered during the excavations conducted by Osman Hamdi Bey, an Ottoman of Greek descent and Yervant Voskan, an Ottoman of Armenian descent, at the necropolis near Sidon, Lebanon in 1887. Originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the Battle of Issus (333) it was demonstrated convincingly by Karl Schefold to have been made before Abdalonymus's death, its still-classical manner uninfluenced by the style of Lysippos. Waldemar Heckel argues that the sarcophagus was made for Mazaeus, a Persian noble and governor of Babylon. According to Schefold, six Ionian sculptors' hands have been distinguished, working in an Attic idiom, but according to Miller the sarcophagus was produced probably by a Rhodian workshop, in this case working at Sidon.


Description

 

The sarcophagus is constructed of Pentelic marble retaining traces of its polychromy, in the form of a Greek temple.

The carvings on one long side of the piece depict Alexander fighting the Persians at the Battle of Issus.Volkmar von Graeve has compared the motif to the famous Alexander Mosaic at Naples, concluding that the iconography of both derives from a common original, a lost painting by Philoxenos of Eretria. Alexander is shown mounted, wearing a lionskin on his head, and preparing to throw a spear at the Persian cavalry. The "historicity" of the figures accepted by von Graeve seems to Karl Schefold to be less stressed than the mythic content of battle and royal hunt, but some scholars believe that a second mounted Macedonian figure near the center represents Hephaestion, Alexander's older close friend. A third mounted Macedonian figure is often identified as Perdiccas.

The opposite long side shows Alexander and the Macedonians hunting lions together with Abdalonymus and the Persians.

The short ends lead the eye towards the mythic lion hunt: one short end portrays a scene in which Abdalonymus is hunting a panther; the other short end depicts a battle, perhaps the Battle of Gaza, in which case the pediment above that end would be showing the murder of Perdiccas. The pediment on the lid above shows Abdalonymus in battle.


Alexander routs Persians on one of the long sides of the Alexander Sarcophagus.

Reconstructions (W)


Color reconstruction of one of the short sides of the Sarcophagus.
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Color reconstruction of Achaemenid cavalry on the Alexander Sarcophagus.
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Color reconstruction of Achaemenid infantry on the Alexander Sarcophagus.

 




📹 Alexander Sarcophagus (VİDEO)

📹 Alexander Sarcophagus (LINK)

The Alexander Sarcophagus, c. 312 B.C.E., Pentelic marble and polychromy, found in Sidon, 195 x 318 x 167 cm (İstanbul Archaeological Museums). Speakers: Dr. Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis and Dr. Steven Zucker. Created by Steven Zucker and Beth Harris.

 








  Historiography of Alexander the Great

Historiography of Alexander the Great (W)

Historiography of Alexander the Great (W)

There are numerous surviving ancient Greek and Latin sources on Alexander the Great, king of Macedon, as well as some Asian texts. The five main surviving accounts are by Arrian, Plutarch, Diodorus Siculus, Quintus Curtius Rufus, and Justin. In addition to these five main sources, there is the Metz Epitome, an anonymous late Latin work that narrates Alexander's campaigns from Hyrcania to India. Much is also recounted incidentally by other authors, including Strabo, Athenaeus, Polyaenus, Aelian, and others. Strabo, who gives a summary of Callisthenes, is an important source for Alexander's journey to Siwah.
 
Contemporary sources

Contemporary sources

Contemporary sources (W)

Most primary sources written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander are lost, but a few inscriptions and fragments survive. Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life include Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Finally, there is the very influential account of Cleitarchus who, while not a direct witness of Alexander's expedition, used sources which had just been published. His work was to be the backbone of that of Timagenes, who heavily influenced many historians whose work still survives. None of his works survived, but we do have later works based on these primary sources.

 



 
The five main sources

The five main sources

The five main sources (W)

Arrian

  • Anabasis Alexandri (The Campaigns of Alexander in Greek) by the Greek historian Arrian of Nicomedia, writing in the 2nd century AD, and based largely on Ptolemy and, to a lesser extent, Aristobulus and Nearchus. It is generally considered one of the best sources on the campaigns of Alexander as well as one of the founders of a primarily military-based focus on history. Arrian cites his source by name and he often criticizes them. He is not interested in the King's private life, overlooking his errors. That Alexander should have committed errors in conduct from impetuosity or from wrath, and that he should have been induced to comport himself like the Persian monarchs to an immoderate degree, I do not think remarkable if we fairly consider both his youth and his uninterrupted career of good fortune. I do not think that even his tracing his origin to a god was a great error on Alexander's part if it was not perhaps merely a device to induce his subjects to show him reverence 888. (Arrian 7b 29)
  • Indike Which according to Artisan made more sense.

 

Plutarch

  • Life of Alexander (see Parallel Lives) and two orations On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great (see Moralia), by the Greek historian and biographer Plutarch of Chaeronea in the second century, based largely on Aristobulus and especially Cleitarchus. Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire and strives to determine how much of it was presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of Lysippus, Alexander's favorite sculptor, to provide what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance.

 

Diodorus

  • Bibliotheca historica (Library of world history), written in Greek by the Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus, from which Book 17 relates the conquests of Alexander, based almost entirely on Cleitarchus and Hieronymus of Cardia. It is the oldest surviving Greek source (1st century BC). Diodorus regarded Alexander like Caesar as a key historical figure and chronological marker.

 

Curtius

  • Historiae Alexandri Magni, a biography of Alexander in ten books, of which the last eight survive, by the Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus, written in the 1st century AD, and based largely on Cleitarchus through the mediation of Timagenes, with some material probably from Ptolemy. His work is fluidly written, but reveals ignorance of geography, chronology, and technical military knowledge, focusing instead on the character. According to Jona Lendering: ..the real subject was not Alexander, but the tyranny of Tiberius and Caligula. (It can be shown that Curtius Rufus' description of the trial of Philotas is based on an incident during the reign of Tiberius)...Curtius copies Cleitarchus' mistakes, although he is not an uncritical imitator.

 

Justin

  • The Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus by Justin, is highly compressed version of an earlier history by Trogus, with the selections governed by Justin's desire to make moralistic points, rather than with an eye for the history itself.

 



 
Lost works

Lost works

Lost works (W)

 



 
Greek epigraphy

Greek epigraphy

Greek epigraphy (W)

 



 
Non-Greco-Roman Sources

Non-Greco-Roman Sources

Non-Greco-Roman Sources (W)

Babylonian Chronicles

  • Alexander Chronicle mentions the battle of Gaugamela and the incident of Bessus, who was pursued by Aliksandar.
  • Alexander and Arabia Chronicle refers to events concerning the last years of the King.

 

Zoroastrian texts

They say that, once upon a time, the pious Zartosht made the religion, which he had received, current in the world; and till the completion of 300 years, the religion was in purity, and men were without doubts. But afterward, the accursed evil spirit, the wicked one, in order to make men doubtful of this religion, instigated the accursed Alexander, the Rûman, who was dwelling in Egypt, so that he came to the country of Iran with severe cruelty and war and devastation; he also slew the ruler of Iran,and destroyed the metropolis and empire, and made them esolate.

 

The Bible

Daniel 8:5–8 and 21–22 states that a King of Greece will conquer the Medes and Persians but then die at the height of his power and have his kingdom broken into four kingdoms. This is sometimes taken as a reference to Alexander.

Alexander was briefly mentioned in the first Book of the Maccabees. All of Chapter 1, verses 1–7 was about Alexander and this serves as an introduction of the book. This explains how the Greek influence reached the Land of Israel at that time.

 

The Quran

There is evidence to suggest that orally transmitted legends about Alexander the Great found their way to the Quran. The story of Dhul-Qarnayn, "the two-horned one" – in chapter al-Kahf, verse 83–94 – is identified by Many scholars with Alexander the Great, Most Western and traditional Muslim scholars generally identify Alexander the Great as the Dhul-Qarnayn. however, Wheeler disagrees. Regarding Alexander's identification, some Muslim scholars (including those from classical times) have differed, with, according to Maududi, modern Muslim scholarship also leaning in favour of identifying him with Cyrus the Great. "The identification ... has been a controversial matter from the earliest times. In general the commentators have been of the opinion that he was Alexander the Great but the characteristics of Zul-Qarnain described in the Qur'an are not applicable to him. However, now the commentators are inclined to believe that Zul-Qarnain was Cyrus ... We are also of the opinion that probably Zul-Qarnain was Cyrus..."

 



 









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